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Indigenous Architecture in the Modern World:
How indigenous design philosophies can inform contemporary structures
by
Peter C. Boome
A Thesis
Submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree
Master of Environmental Studies
The Evergreen State College
June 2015
©2015 by Peter Boome. All rights reserved.
This Thesis for the Master of Environmental Studies Degree
by
Peter Boome
has been approved for
The Evergreen State College
by
________________________
Kathleen Saul, Ph. D.
Member of the Faculty
___June 3, 2015__
iv
ABSTRACT
Indigenous architecture in the modern world:
How indigenous design philosophies can inform contemporary structures
Peter Boome
Buildings consume nearly forty percent of the energy produced in the United
States. When confronted with this reality most architects and builders turn to
technological advances in materials and building techniques in order to improve energy
efficiency. One potential area for building improvement has received little or no
attention. This area is indigenous structural design and building philosophy.
Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest coast are a place-based people who
have occupied the region for thousands of years. Prior to European contact indigenous
peoples had a distinct design tradition creating longhouse structures perfectly suited to
local cultural and environmental needs. The modern day revival of longhouses on the
northwest coast leads to interesting observations about indigenous design philosophy and
the results of utilizing this design philosophy in contemporary structures. The Evergreen
State College is in the process of designing and building an indigenous fine arts campus
with the next structure slated to be a fiber arts studio. The fiber arts studio will combine
Coast Salish longhouse design with Maori meetinghouse (marae) design creating a
unique one of a kind indigenous structure.
The building philosophy of both Maori and Salish people result in uniquely
beautiful buildings that coincidentally are energy efficient, place-based structures that
blend into, and are part of the environment. This thesis explores the history of indigenous
design with a focus on Coast Salish design and asks the question, what would happen if
modern architects and builders followed indigenous design philosophy when building
modern structures?
v
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Building energy use in the United States
2
Chapter 2: Indigenous Design
6
Chapter 3: Historical Indigenous Structures on the Northwest coast
18
Chapter 4: After Contact
49
Chapter 5: Contemporary Longhouse Design
55
Chapter 6: Maori Carved Meetinghouses
71
Chapter 7: Fiber Arts Studio
77
Chapter 8: Discussion
81
Bibliography
85
Index of Photos
87
vi
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my advisor Kathleen Saul for helping turn a random
collection of ideas, photos, and words into a cohesive statement, and for having the
patience and vision to see the merits and importance of an unorthodox approach. This
thesis wouldn’t have been possible without your help. Thank You
To Johnpaul Jones for patiently answering my questions and gracefully giving
your valuable time to teach me about indigenous design philosophy. I quickly learned I
was asking the wrong questions, thank you for setting me on the right path.
To Lyonel Grant, visiting your marae at Unitec was truly a transformational
moment in my life. It is an honor to be working on the fiber arts studio with you. Your
friendship and council are precious. Thank you for the encouragement and for tolerating
thousands of e-mails, and hundreds of photos. Our discussions have altered the way I
approach and think about art, culture, and architecture. You are a brother to me and will
always be welcome in my home.
To Tina Kuckkahn-Miller, thank you for all your support throughout the years
both artistically and academically. Without your leadership and guidance the Indigenous
Fine Arts Campus would not exist and this thesis never would have happened. Thank you
for allowing me to be part of the Fiber Arts Studio team. I look forward to a continued
friendship for years to come.
Finally I would like to thank my family, my wife Lois and our children Kayla,
Malena, Araquin and Thayden. Without your support I could never do what I do. Thank
you Lois for interpreting academic language into something I can understand and relate
to. None of this would be possible without your ideas and insights. You are truly my
better half and I feel blessed to spend my life with you. I love you and look forward to
spending the rest of our lives together. As always, there is nothing I would rather do than
doing nothing with you.
vii
1
Introduction
Indigenous architectural design evolved over hundreds of thousands of
years to suit the needs of indigenous peoples and function in specific
environments and climates. As Cajete articulates;
Each traditional structure evolved from the special relationship people had with
their environments. Native structures were themselves reflections of the special
features and available resources of the landscape of which they were part. The stories,
artistic forms, and technologies involved with the construction of these structures were
a testament to the long-negotiated relationship with their land and resources.
Unfortunately, indigenous design style and technology is mostly unknown
or overlooked in modern building and construction. This thesis will explore
philosophy, history, and use of indigenous place-based architectural design with
a primary focus on cedar plank longhouses of the Northwest coast. It will also
explore the current use of indigenous design in the Northwest as well as
contemporary Maori structural design from New Zealand as they relate to the
evolution and continuation of historical design traditions.
Methodology
This thesis is exploratory in nature. The primary data for this thesis
comes from participatory research such as actively participating in building
design, listening to extensive oral histories, and visiting numerous contemporary
indigenous buildings around the world.
Other aspects of research for this thesis include interviews and
exhaustive museum and archival research, sifting through thousand of historic
items, documents, and photos and reviewing as much of the existing literature as
possible.
The research question driving the research was, “How can indigenous
design, and design philosophies inform contemporary structures?”
2
Chapter 1
Building energy use in the United States
Accounting for nearly 39% of US energy use, and nearly 38% of carbon
dioxide emissions, the building sector has a large impact on energy consumption
and greenhouse gas emissions. Even with technological advances and
improvements in materials and building design, nearly two thirds of all new
construction is not done in a sustainable manner, with only 30% of commercial
office space certified as energy efficient by the Environmental Protection
Agency’s Energy Star certification, and only eleven percent of commercial office
space certified as sustainable by LEED.
In the United States, buildings account for: 1
•
36% of total energy use and 65 percent of electricity consumption
•
30% of greenhouse gas emissions
•
30% of raw materials use
•
30% of waste output (136 million tons annually)
•
12% of potable water consumption
Buildings Share of U.S. Primary Energy Consumption:
Source: U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), 2008
1
Green Building Council
3
Existing commercial buildings can receive an Energy Star certification
from the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) if the source energy use of
a specific building equals or is better than the top quarter of all comparable
buildings in the area. Unfortunately this means that if all buildings in an area
have horrendous energy efficiency, the top quarter of those horrendous
buildings can still be certified as Energy Star buildings simply because they are
more efficient than comparable horrendous buildings.
In 1993 the nonprofit US Green Building Council was formed. In 2000 the
LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) green building
certification system was unveiled, singling out commercial, institutional and
residential projects noteworthy for their stellar environmental and health
performance in both the United States and abroad.
Leadership in Environmental and Energy Design (LEED) green building
rating system is designed to encourage the adoption of sustainable green
building practices. Buildings earn points credit upon a number of factors
including energy efficiency and aesthetic factors.
These aesthetic aspects have broader social implications, rather than just
rating a building on energy efficiency, or use of sustainable materials. The
aesthetic aspects include quality of living for the occupants; things like whether
the building is within easy walking distance of public transit, or whether the
indoor environmental quality includes things like access to daylight, views, or
better indoor air quality than other buildings. In essence, LEED seeks to go
beyond simple technological and energy saving fixes and look at the total
environmental impact of a structure including water efficiency and impacts on
local ecosystems (Council, 2015).
If Energy Star and LEED certified buildings save money on energy costs
and are more pleasing to the occupants why aren’t more buildings designed to
meet these standards? Many barriers exist to implementation of sustainable
building practices. Although they save money over the life of the building many
4
LEED certified buildings incur an upfront costs proving prohibitive to many
builders
Market barriers also exist. One such barrier known as the “split incentive”
barrier, describes a disconnection between those who manage the building, and
those who must pay the utility bills. Split incentive is when tenants do not have
direct control over building improvements, and landlords will not reap benefits
of being more energy efficient, therefore they have no incentive to retrofit, nor
build in a sustainable fashion.
Initial cost vs. life-cycle cost: Sustainable building design has many more
upfront costs associated with it. Sustainable building materials often cost more.
Soft cost which include; labor and design are much higher in sustainable building
because of the expertise required. The energy efficiency of these buildings
means that operating costs, such as heating and cooling over the lifetime (lifecycle) of the building are far lower than standard buildings. In many cases it can
takes years for energy savings to equal the upfront costs of building a
sustainable building.
The design and installation of many technological advances such as solar,
geothermal, advanced heating and insulation all require specialized expertise to
install. This expertise costs more than the standard run of the mill general
contractor. In most public buildings, contracts generally are awarded to those
who limit construction costs. This practice tends to hinder energy efficiency
because initial capital costs for the installation of superior, more efficient
building technologies exceed those of standard inefficient buildings; the same
technologies that reduce subsequent operating costs.
Public policy is inconsistent when it comes to sustainable building. Most
building codes are local, meaning they are implemented at city, county, and state
levels. Sometimes public policy can be in direct conflict, where one policy
encourages more energy efficient buildings, while another pro-utility policy
encourages more energy use, usually to support in an effort to support local
utilities or energy producers (Kok, McGraw, & Quigley, 2011).
Information barrier: A general lack of information about energy saving
technologies, opportunities, or incentives can result in people simply not
5
knowing that energy efficient options exist. In some areas of the country there
may be interest in sustainable buildings, and sustainable building technologies
but no local expertise or access. Local building suppliers may not stock energy
efficient technology. Additionally there may not be anyone local who has the
expertise or knowledge to properly install sustainable technologies (Kok,
McGraw, & Quigley, 2011).
The barriers that prevent more energy efficient buildings enumerated
above also deter implementation of indigenous design.
6
Chapter 2
Indigenous design:
Around the world indigenous peoples create structures that reflect their
history and cultural values. These structures are place-based, meaning they
would not make sense if located in any other location. Place-based also means
indigenous peoples take local ecosystems, topography, weather patterns, and
cultural norms into account. Many historic indigenous dwellings such as the
famous tipi of the great plains, and the hogans of the Navajo nation have their
doors facing east, to welcome the morning sun. This simple alignment reflects a
strong cultural imperative. In the Pacific Northwest longhouses faced the water.
Many of the pueblos of the southwest are build upon historic foundations
hundred and perhaps thousands of years old, such as the adobe houses at Acuma
pueblo which has been continuously inhabited for over 1,500 years.
Acuma Pueblo, P. Boome 2010
Generally indigenous design uses locally sourced materials and aspires to
adhere to, or build upon, a historic design tradition reflecting the cultural values
of the people the building serves. These historic design traditions such as facing
7
the door east, or using specific building materials such as red cedar in the Pacific
Northwest, or adobe in the southwest reflect a connection to historic design and
cultural identity. Using cedar in the southwest or adobe in the northwest
wouldn’t make sense on a variety of levels. The indigenous peoples would have
no connection to these materials or expertise in their use. The materials likely
wouldn’t work or be ideal in different climates. Adobe wouldn’t stand up in the
relentless northwest rain, and cedar would split and crack in the dry southwest
climate.
Indigenous design is also a philosophical approach to building design. It
expresses a relationship with the natural world. Indigenous peoples developed
technologies as ways to deal with issues that come up in the process of living in a
particular place, such as a coastline, mountain, desert, etc. (Cajete, 2000). In this
way traditional architecture is an example of this applied science. Each structure
evolved from the special relationship people had evolved with their specific
environments. In addition indigenous structures were themselves a reflection of
the features and resources of the landscape. Their stories and artistic forms
reflect a continuation of an environmental relationship. The adobe structures
with their historic wooden ladders of Acuma Pueblo pictured earlier illustrate
this connection.
Adobe is perfectly suited for the climate of the southwest. It maintains a
consistent temperature remaining relatively cool in the summer and warm in the
winter. Adobe is abundant, easily replaced and repaired. The wooden ladders
are similar in design to those found at ancient Anasazi ruins suggesting a
continuation of this historic design tradition.
8
The Longhouse
The “House of Welcome” Longhouse Education and Cultural Center is a
public service center at The Evergreen State College. Opened in 1995 and
fashioned after historic northern longhouses of the northwest coast, the
longhouse was built in collaboration with area tribes. The Quinault Indian
Nation, for example provided timber for the support beams and structure of the
Longhouse (Capoeman-Baller, 2014).
Designed by Johnpaul Jones, the Longhouse was the first building of its
kind on a public campus in the United States. The Longhouse serves as multipurpose facility providing a wide variety of educational, cultural, and community
functions. The Longhouse provides a gathering place for indigenous peoples and
the Evergreen community and can be seen as the pride and joy of the school.
Hosting thousands of visitors every year, the Longhouse is a primary attraction
on the Evergreen campus; no visit is complete without a tour of the structure.
9
House of Welcome, Longhouse at the Evergreen State College, L. Grabhorn 2015
The Longhouse provides and promotes indigenous arts and cultures
through a wide variety of programs. The Longhouse regularly offers workshops
and visiting artist residencies as well as an annual holiday art market providing
local indigenous artists an opportunity to display and sell their work.
In an effort to expand these functions the Longhouse staff is working to
build an indigenous fine arts campus to facilitate a planned Masters of Fine Arts
program with an emphasis on indigenous arts. This program will be the first of
its kind in the northwest. The indigenous MFA will focus primarily on visual arts
including painting, printmaking, weaving, carving, and glasswork. While these
works will be cultural in nature they will include both contemporary and
traditional art styles.
10
The Indigenous Fine Arts Campus will provide a series of art specific
spaces for indigenous artists and peoples, with a particular emphasis on local
Salish peoples of the Pacific Northwest. The campus will further the college’s
mission of education while connecting indigenous peoples locally, regionally,
nationally, and internationally with an international focus on indigenous peoples
from the Pacific rim. The fine arts campus will allow artists to work in styles and
materials which may not be readily accessible to them otherwise. Students in the
fine arts program will be mentored by master indigenous artists from around
the world while having the opportunity to participate in indigenous cultural
exchanges.
Educationally, culturally, and artistically, the fine arts campus will have
far reaching impacts for artists, tribes, and communities. Participants will learn
to preserve and, in some cases, re-establish important cultural art forms while
also passing that knowledge on to others. Artists will be able to create
marketable works and learn business skills so they will be able to sell these
works at local, regional, national, and international markets, thus enhancing
their economic opportunities as well as educating the broader public through
engagement about contemporary indigenous arts and cultures (KuckkahnMiller, 2014).
Opened in 2012 the carving studio named, Pay3q'ali, means "a place to
carve" in southern Salish. The carving studio is the first step in the creation of
the indigenous fine arts campus. The studio was created using a historic Salish
shed-roof design. Salish shed-roof longhouses, also known as single-pitch
plankhouses is unique in that there isn’t a gable, or ridge on the roof. This design
11
allows for the easy removal of roof and wall planks. This is important because
Salish longhouses were primarily multi-family winter dwellings, with the roof
and wall planks taken apart and used for temporary summer dwellings.
Carving Studio at Evergreen State College, P. Boome 2015
The next phase in the creation of the indigenous fine arts campus will be
the construction of a fiber arts (weaving) studio, currently in the final planning
and pre-construction phase. It is my connection with this fiber arts studio that
has led me to this thesis. The fiber arts studio is being collaboratively designed
by master Maori carver Dr. Lyonel Grant, and internationally renowned Choctaw
architect Johnpaul Jones. I am the Coast Salish advisor on the project and will
12
work with Grant and Jones to integrate Salish design, and carve structural and
decorative elements of the building.
The college and Longhouse staff selected Jones and Grant for this project
because they are among the best in the world at what they do. Johnpaul Jones is
a world renowned architect who served as the lead architect for the National
Museum of the American Indian (NMAI), one of the Smithsonian museums built
on the National Mall in Washington D.C. Because of Jones’ building philosophy,
his buildings tend to be more sustainable and energy efficient than other
buildings. As Jones puts it when describing the energy efficiency of the National
Museum of the American Indian;
We didn’t set out to be LEED certified or anything like that when we built
the museum. Just by following the philosophy and belief system that was
important to us, we ended up with a LEED certified building, one of the
most energy efficient buildings in DC.
National Museum of the American Indian Washington DC, P. Boome 2014
13
The design of the NMAI is meant to communicate important cultural and
physical ideas about indigenous peoples of the Americas. There are four stones
gathered from the far north, the far south, far east, and far west of the Americas.
The curves and lines of NMAI are meant to mimic the shapes of the windblown
sandstone canyons of the southwest. Rainwater is gathered, creating a pool and
watering important indigenous plants in the gardens outside the building. The
position and cycles of the sun were taken into account. There are prisms located
in the roof of the main atrium. During the summer and winter solstices these
prisms shine light on the rotunda floor creating a rainbow effect symbolizing
transition and growth.
Jones has received countless recognitions and awards for his
architectural designs including the 2014 National Humanities Metal, awarded by
President Obama. Jones was also the architect of the original Longhouse at
Evergreen. His firm Jones and Jones is internationally known for building and
landscape architecture which focuses on the power of place. According to Jones:
Cultures spring from our relationship with the land. The adaptations people make in
their places build living traditions, which are continually evolving and contribute to a
regional and local sense of place. Celebrating these traditions—these human
connections to place—is a cultural imperative which is often overlooked by
conventional planning and design. Great design comes out of listening and asking
questions. It’s a means for telling powerful stories in physical form (Jones J. , 2014).
Lyonel Grant is a Maori carver and designer who has worked on several
carved Maori meeting houses, also known as whare, and marae. These meeting
houses are generally multi-function buildings serving the needs of specific
communities. Carved meeting houses not only provide a location for special
events such as wedding or funerals, they also communicate a story of the people
of the area. The carvings often represent ancestors or ancestral stories of the
area. The marae’s often tell an important story about the tribal history of the
people the marae serves.
14
Affectionately called Lyonel’s house by manyy Maori, Te Noho
Kotahitanga lies at the heart of Unitec’s Mt Albert campus in Auckland. Grant’s
remarkable work on Te Noho Kotahitanga, the marae of Unitec Institute of
Technology in Auckland New Zealand has won him international acclaim. Much
like the longhouse at Evergreen, Te Noho Kotahitanga is the first whakairo
(carved meeting house) carved in the traditional fashion in nearly a century.
Most meetinghouses that have been constructed in the last century have been
western style buildings. If they are carved they have simply been a carved façade
placed on a western building, the carvings serving no structural function and
being simply decorative in nature. Te Noho Kotahitanga’s carved elements are
structural as well as decorative in nature the support beams, rafters, and other
building elements are all carved, integral parts of the building.
Lyonel’s house is the centerpiece of Unitec. Serving as a multi-purpose
facility. Te Noho Kotahitanga is in constant demand for use as a classroom,
meeting and gathering space. The design philosophy behind the marae resulted
in building being energy efficient and sustainable much more so than similar
sized structures in the area. The philosophical approach to the marae is one of
integration into the environment rather than a standalone building simply being
placed on a plot. Historically Maori carvers would save the chips and other
pieces of wood that weren’t going to be used. After a carving was completed the
carvers would return the unused portions of wood to the forest where it had
come from. When working on Te Noho Kotahitanga, wood chips and sawdust
were saved. Eventually several large dump truck loads of wood material was
returned to the forest where the lumber had been harvested.
15
Te Noho Katahitanga, Unitec Institute of Technology, Auckland New Zealand , P. Boome 2014
Notice in the picture above the exquisite carvings on either side. The
Central pole is a bronze cast from a wooden carving. The siding is compiled of
thousands of pieces of wood that normally would have been thrown away as
waste material but instead were pieced together to form a beautiful mosaic. The
figure on the top of the pole is actually formed in negative space. If you look
carefully you will see two heads coming together in a traditional Maori greeting.
16
Te Noho Kotahitanga, interior view, P. Boome 2014
Te Noho Kotahitanga, has received international acclaim for being on the
cutting edge of design. By building one of the first traditionally carved buildings
in nearly a century, with a traditional design philosophy, this traditional design
philosophy dictates that many of the structural elements of the marae are also
artistic elements, and that the artistry tells the story of the marae. Grant utilized
modern technology and materials to enhance rather than replace traditional
indigenous knowledge. Grant’s approach much like Jone’s relies on the belief
that structures be place-based. Rather than simply placing a building on a
cleared lot, indigenous philosophy encourages builders to fit into the natural
landscape and surroundings. Both Grant and Jones incorporate important
aspects of the land such as topography, orientation of the sun, indigenous plants,
17
water, and the customary relationships people have with their environment. As
Grant states,
We have a tradition here in Aotearoa, that relates to the formally seeking
permission of Tane Mahuta the forest entity to take one of his children for
the purposes of creating a craft that will better the lot of humans.
Permission is also sought of the birds and other creatures the reside in
that tree (Grant, Maori Master Carver, 2015).
Grant articulates a commonly shared indigenous attitude and belief
system that is one of the driving forces behind the Evergreen Fiber Arts Studio.
Another driving force behind the design of the Studio is the idea of improving
upon the existing approach. The Longhouse was the first of its kind requiring
remarkable vision and planning. The question is: How do you improve upon the
longhouse foundation and create a truly remarkable structure that incorporates
the best of traditional design, contemporary technology, and embodies the spirit
of those who designed the building, those who will utilize the building, as well as
the spirit of the land and people on which the building sits?
In order to complete this task and build upon a historic design tradition
we must first understand the design tradition we build upon. Along with
understanding this tradition we must also understand the complexities of energy
efficiency and green building technologies. The combination of traditional
building design, coupled with technological advances in materials and energy
efficiency will lead to a truly remarkable and inspired structure, one that has the
potential to be emulated around the world and serve as an example of the
ingenuity and intelligence of indigenous design and indigenous design
philosophy.
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Chapter 3
Historical Indigenous Structures on the Northwest Coast
Indigenous peoples used a wide variety of historical structures on the
northwest coast. These adaptable structures varied as much as the people who
created and used them. Most groups in the northwest used seasonal dwellings.
Large communal dwelling housed numerous families in the winter that served as
gathering places for important social and cultural activities such as a potlatch.
People lived in small, portable summer homes that could quickly and easily be
moved as necessitated by fishing, hunting, and seasonal gathering. Some
seasonal structures were more permanent in nature, frames would be left
behind, or complete dwellings might be occupied for only portions of the year.
One such permanent dwelling that was occupied seasonally was the pithouse.
Pithouses
While fairly common among the tribes of the American southwest as well
as plateau tribes of the northwest, pit houses are less studied or known along the
coast. Despite the presence of numerous housepits (surficial remains of
pithouses) there is a gap in our knowledge of these structures. Ethnographers
working among the Coast Salish communities where both plankhouses and pit
houses were used tended towards a reductive approach in their descriptions of
the latter. Whereas plankhouse design and construction where described in rich
detail a sparse definition of a circular, semi-subterranean winter home was
provided for pit houses with little additional elaboration likely because there are
no known surviving examples (Springer, 2009).
Salish peoples dug pit houses into the ground providing them with
insulation as well as protection during times of war. Pit houses came in many
shapes from smaller circular pit houses to larger longhouses, only partially dug
into the ground. The larger longhouses also known as plank houses were
19
commonly used from northern California up through the Oregon coast. The
smaller circular pit houses typically were found in northern Washington and
into British Columbia. These pit houses located inland from the Salish Sea,
mostly along rivers, like the Fraser, and in higher elevations towards the
mountains where the weather is colder. Most Salish pit houses were small often
with single-family occupants, although they were commonly larger frequently
housing several families in a single pithouse.
Pithouse replica, Royal British Columbia Museum, Photo Mike Waterman 2014
20
Coquille Plankhouse Coos Bay Oregon, P. Boome 2014
The Coquille Plankhouse in Coos Bay is a modern version of a historic
plankhouse. The plankhouse is about half subterranean dug into the ground at
nearly the depth as the visible exterior walls. Much like the longhouses of Alaska
the low doorway served two main functions; one was the retention interior heat
the second function was that of protection. The low doorway forced visitors to
bend down in order to enter, this defensive strategy of forcing an attacker to
bend down while entering gave the occupant the upper hand in close-quarter
fighting.
Summer / Temporary Dwellings
Summer houses were generally small single family dwellings used
primarily during hunting, fishing, or gathering seasons, moved frequently to
accommodate these activities. Often made of woven mats and other light
materials summer homes used cedar planks and wooden poles as support
structures. Somewhat like a modern tent, the poles and support structures were
generally gathered from the local surrounding and lashed together. The type of
wood used depended on what was available locally; alder, maple, and other
types of saplings could be used interchangeably. Cedar planks from winter
21
homes were often used as main structural components such as main beams and
wall support. All that was required was a simple frame that woven mats could be
hung from. While the houses themselves were temporary, families tended to
return to the same locations year after year.
Note that the cedar planks were used year round were the inspiration for
the term “plank house” which is often used to describe larger, multi-family
winter dwellings.
Abundantly available in the northwest cedar has many desirable traits
including the ease with which it can be split into long planks by driving wedges
into the ends of cedar logs. Not only used for dwellings, cedar is the wood of
choice for dugout canoes, carvings, bent-wood boxes, many tools, baskets, and
even clothing.
Heavily used canoes wear out. When this occurred their sides were cut off
and used as cedar planks for longhouses, showing remarkable recycling and
ingenuity (Mauger, 1978). This type of exceptional connection with the locally
available material demonstrates the indigenous philosophy of creating as little
waste as possible.
Summer houses were exceptionally important to the indigenous peoples
of the northwest coast as is evident by their inclusion in numerous northwest
treaties, such as this passage from the Point Elliott treaty of 1855.
The right of taking fish at usual and accustomed grounds and stations is further secured
to said Indians in common with all citizens of the Territory, and of erecting temporary
houses for the purpose of curing, together with the privilege of hunting and gathering
roots and berries on open and unclaimed lands.
Indigenous people generally did not understand treaty language nor the
concepts surrounding European private ownership, the fact that they insisted
upon the ability to erect temporary houses shows the absolute importance of
doing so.
22
Snohomish temporary dwelling, Puget Sound 1905, University of Washington digital library.
Notice in the previous photo the woven mat and drying salmon. The
salmon appear to be chum or “dog” salmon, the least favored salmon species in
the northwest. The pole in front as well as the cross-beam are made from alder
as evident by the bark.
23
Tulalip Summer Home (women known only as Annie and Katie), 1904, University of Washington
Digital Archives.
The photo above of the Tulalip summer home demonstrates the use of
mats, and cedar planks. You can discern the frame of the structure, it is a smaller
version of a larger gable roof dwelling.
24
Lummi woman weaving in front of mat house. 1912 Coast Salish; National Museum of the American
Indian
Notice on the photo above the skillfully woven mats lining the walls were
multi-functional, serving as walls, dividers, and floor, or sleeping mats. They
were likely woven from tule, reeds or other local grasses. They were utilitarian
in purpose and generally unadorned.
Esquimalt dwelling. Temporary shelter covered with woven mats for long-distance travel. Planks
shown in foreground. Vancouver Island 1880. National Museum of the American Indian.
25
The previous photo shows cedar planks in the foreground and stacked
along side the dwelling. These planks are likely the same planks used as walls
and roof sections of larger multi-family plankhouses during winter months.
Skokomish Fishing Shelter 1913, Library of Congress
This Skokomish shelter shows the simple tent-like structure commonly
used for summer shelters. The elaborately woven and colorful baskets are a
sharp contrast to the unadorned reed mats used on the structure. The canoe is a
small river canoe probably around 12 to 14 feet in length, perfectly designed for
small families and for navigating along rivers.
Cedar Plankhouses
The most famous and studied of all northwest indigenous structures
plankhouses vary in design and size from region to region, and are known by a
number of interchangeable names. Names such as, plankhouse, long house, big
26
house, meetinghouse, potlatch house, and smoke house all refer to large cedar
plank dwellings.
Plankhouses were commonly used as winter dwelling housing several
families and serving as important cultural gathering places. Considered almost
as living entities, most houses were given proper names, acquiring reputations
for their status among the people.
In 1778 James Cook brought his ship Resolution into Nootka Sound on
Vancouver Island’s western shore. After he dropped anchor Cook climbed a
notched-log stairway from the beach to examine some of the most sophisticated
wood architecture in the world. Standing imposingly above the tide line three
rows of large cedar-plank houses lined the “main street”. Cook observed “
The height of the sides and ends of these habitations is seven and eight feet; the back is
higher than the front, by which means the planks that compose the roof slant forward;
they are laid on loose, and are moved to let out smoke and admit air or light.”
Cook also noted carvings on the inside of the houses,
These are nothing more than the trunks of very large trees four or five feet high, set up
singly or by pairs, at the upper end of the apartment, with the front carved into a human
face, the arms and hand cut out upon the sides, and variously painted, so that the whole
is a truly monstrous figure…
(Nabokov & Easton, 1989).
Kwakiutl village on a hillside, Vancouver Island, Johnstone Straight, British Columbia, engraving
1792, University of Washington digital collections.
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Map, (Carlson, 1976)
In order to better understand and study plankhouse (and artistic)
variation scholars have grouped the dozen or more major Northwest Coast tribal
groups (usually linguistic groups) by three sub-regions: Southern, Central, and
Northern.
All of these groups constructed wood plankhouses, using massive logs for
their post-and-beam frames, long split and adzed planks for their walls and
roofs. Most groups used and preferred western red cedar. Indigenous groups in
northern California used giant sequoia, while their northern cousins used the
less common white cedar, a remnant of the last ice age. Indigenous groups in the
far north used yellow cedar, and sometimes hemlock.
House builders preferred red cedar because it had many useful properties
including being incredibly durable in the damp climate of the Pacific Northwest.
Red cedar is fragrant and insect resistant. Red cedar is a soft but firm wood
making it ideal to carve. An old-growth tree can be split cleanly into forty-foot
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planks with clear straight grain and no knots. After it dries, red cedar is light in
weight and full of fragrant oil making it one of the longest lasting woods in the
northwest (Nabokov & Easton, 1989).
Even though many similarities exist between indigenous groups in the
Pacific Northwest, house shapes, construction details, and symbolic decorations
of each region-- and often in each tribe – displayed distinguishing characteristics
clearly separating regions, tribal groups, and even families.
The best known and most studied of the Northwest coast plankhouses
belong to the Northern peoples of Southern Alaska and Northern British
Columbia. The longhouses in the North typically fell into a few distinct design
types. All Northern longhouse types were gable-roofed structures most using
either a two, four, or six-beam frame. The Tlinget and Tsimshian constructed
similar gable-roofed houses using a four-beam system while the Haida of Queen
Charlotte Islands also used a four-beam frame they created a unique six-beam
house that was used by no other group.
Photo on the left: Haida six-beam frame and entryway. Haida Gwaii 1897, National Museum of the
American Indian Photo on the right: Tlingit four-beam frame, Prince of Whales Island. Date
unknown NMAI
The photo on the left shows a six beam Haida frame while the photo on
the right shows a Tlingit four-beam frame. The Haida house entryway is a bear
with an eagle on top, with wolves the posts (although they could also be bears, it
is difficult to tell from the angle of this photo). If you notice in the Tlingit photo
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the center post also depicts a bear at the base with an eagle above. This photo
also shows rectangular beams and straight lined supports. This house was likely
built using milled lumber after European contact. The house also features an
excavated floor. Found all along the Pacific coast excavated floors were common
for many groups and served to regulate temperature within the longhouse.
Northern and Central gable-roofed plankhouses
Elaborately carved and painted exteriors including front panels and
totem poles distinguish northern style longhouses. Exquisitely carved and
painted interiors typified these longhouses. Longhouses in the central areas of
the Pacific Northwest tended to be less elaborately decorated on the exterior,
likely due to the fact, that people removed their roofs and walls during summer
months for other uses. Support beams and entryways, part of the permanent
frame, were often beautifully carved and crafted, telling the stories of the
occupants and showcasing wealth and status. Interior carved and painted panels
served as dividers to separate high status families within the multi-family
dwelling, as well as to serve as backdrops for social gatherings. These panels also
told the story of the owners and indicated lineage, wealth, and status.
Haida Cheif Sonihat's house frame. Kasaan Alaska 1938. University of Washington Library digital
collection
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Haida six-beam house and totem poles, Haida Gwaii 1884, National Museum of the American Indian.
This is likely a chief’s house as indicated by the top figures of the poles.
These depictions of human figures wearing tall ringed hats indicate chief status.
The bear on top of the other pole likely indicates the occupants belong to the
bear clan.
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Haida six beam longhouses, Unknown Location (likely Haida Gwaii), unknown date, National
Museum of the American Indian.
This photo is mislabeled as Vancouver Island, which it clearly is not. The
style of the longhouses with their six beam structure as well as the artistic style
of the totem poles clearly represents Haida carving and design.
Note: Each totem pole is different depicting different families and
lineages. The second pole from the right advertises the chief’s house as noted by
the human figure on top of the eagle. This figure is carved wearing a tall ringed
hat, indicating chief status.
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Koh-Kluk's big house, Klukwan Alaska 1894, University of Washington digital archives.
The exquisite carvings include house posts, house panels, giant feast
bowl, bent-wood boxes and masks. The man in the back on the left is wearing a
ringed hat, he is likely the head chief of this house.
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Interior of Kwakwaka'wakw four-beam longhouse, Blondin Harbor, British Columbia, 1951?
National Museum of the American Indian.
Notice the carved guardian figure at the door as well as the loose roof
planks and floor planks. This house typifies the central style of Northwest Coast
Longhouses. This house was likely built after European contact indicated by use
of the rectangular door and the window.
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House posts, Kwakwaka'wakw (Kwakiutl) 1926 Vancouver Island British Columbia, National
Museum of the American Indian.
The posts in the foreground depict humans, while the posts in the
background depict humans on the bottom and either eagles, but more likely
thunderbirds on top. (The hooked beak indicates the figures are thunderbirds.)
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Houseposts, Kwakwaka'wakw (Kwakiutl) 1926 Vancouver Island, National Museum of the American
Indian.
The house posts depict bears on the bottom, holding humans, likely
signifying guardianship over the human occupant. Ravens perch atop the bears.
The posts in the background have the same motif but different design with the
wings folded to the side and both the bears and ravens have different features
such as eyes and teeth, they were likely carved by a different carver. Also notice
how there is a built in step between the posts, the floor of this house was
excavated, which had a variety of benefits such as temperature control,
increased space including storage space and a place to be out of the wind or any
draft that may come through cracks in the walls.
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View of longhouse frame mid-construction. Kwakwaka'wakw (Kwakiutl) 1878, Vancouver, British
Columbia, National Museum of the American Indian
Notice in the photo above the notch on the center beam. This notch
insures the beam will fit properly and not roll. The lines that can be seen on the
support posts which form the entry way the result from expert adze work (a
form of carving). Notice the carved support posts at the back of the longhouse as
well as the planks around the edges. These planks will be used to support the
walls in an interlocking, shingle style system. The canoe in the foreground and
the person in the background, give you an idea of the scale of this house, this
style of dugout canoe would typically be 25 to 40 feet in length.
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Kwakiutl 4-beam house frame 1910, Library of Congress Note: Notice the adze marks on the rafters,
this was done to “even out” the beams making them essentially the same diameter from end to end.
This shows the gable frame style of house, essentially two shed-roof houses
The map on the left shows the
historic range of Coast Salish
peoples as well as their current
tribal names and areas.
(Stonington, 2010)
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Salish shed-roof houses
In 1792 Captain George Vancouver explored Elliot Bay in what is now
Seattle. He landed on shore to examine an indigenous dwelling whose singlepitch shed roof was home to over six hundred Dwamish, and Suquamish. The
house known as Tsu-Suc-Cub (Old-Man-House) extended more than 380 yards
in length- almost a fifth of a mile. The Old-Man-House was divided lengthwise
into eight sections, each housing a separate clan and identified by prominently
displayed carved figures (Nabokov & Easton, 1989).
Artist rendition of Old Man House, Suquamish Tribal department of History and Culture
Old-Man-house, a shed-roof structure was the largest long house on the
northwest coast. George Gibbs estimated the structure to be 520 feet (158.5
meters) long, 60 feet (18.3meters) wide, 15 feet (4.6 meters) high in the front
and 10 feet (three meters) high in the rear, supported by 74 large house posts,
some of which were carved (Suquamish, Suquamish Tribe department of history
and culture). Suquamish elders stated that Old-Man-House was built by
Schweab, the father of Chief Seattle, and by Chief Kitsap, another Suquamish
leader. Old-Man-House took over four years to build, and likely took much longer
as sections would be added to the ends as needed.
Old-Man-House was destroyed by around 1870. Most accounts attribute
the destruction to the Indian Agent who enforced federal policies on the Port
Madison Indian reservation. Other accounts say the federal government
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destroyed Old Man House to discourage extended multi-generation families from
living together in one house (Suquamish, Suquamish Tribe department of history
and culture). Old-Man-House was one of the last great Salish longhouses. Its
destruction essential wiped out Salish longhouses and communal living for
Salish peoples in Washington State. The destruction of Old-Man-House also
destroyed important archeological and architectural knowledge about Salish life,
and Salish architectural design and construction.
Old-Man-House, Date unknown, Suquamish Tribe
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Some posts from Old-Man-House remained standing through the early 1900s, Suquamish Tribal
department of History and Culture
Engraving from 1792 showing Salish longhouses, University of Washington digital collection
