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Seeds from the Hands of Farmers
Seed Conservation Projects of Brazil’s Peasant Farmers
By David R. Phillips
A Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Environmental Studies
The Evergreen State College
Olympia, WA
June 2010
2010 by David R. Phillips. All rights reserved.
ABSTRACT
Small-scale family farmers in developing regions traditionally save heirloom or
native seeds in order to sustain harvests and conserve well-adapted traditional crop
varieties. Seed saving can contribute to lower supply costs, more diversified goods,
improved nutrition and farm self-sufficiency. Seed saving by small farmers is also
essential in conserving global agricultural biodiversity. However, recent corporate
consolidation of seed markets has led to conflictive issues regarding seed types and
sources.
In response, native seed conservation projects have been established in several
peasant farm communities in Brazil, with support of rural land reform movements and
farm extension organizations. One such project is Bionatur Agroecological Seeds,
founded in southern Brazil in 1997 by farmers from the Movement of Landless Rural
Workers to produce and market agroecological vegetable seeds. This thesis and field
research focused on Bionatur as a main case study. Bionatur’s history, mission,
organization, operations and outcomes are described here, along with analysis of its
evident problems and potential. Two other native seed conservation projects with
different strategies in other regions of Brazil are presented for comparative purposes.
Based on his analysis, the author’s recommendations for designing and implementing
native seed conservation projects are presented in the concluding chapter.
Table of Contents
Chapter One
Native seed conservation in traditional farming systems
1
Thesis statement and key questions
2
Geographic context and nature of the research
3
Research methods and overview
5
Researcher’s background and inspiration for thesis research
7
Chapter Two
Seeds: traditional technology, market commodity and political symbol
10
Corporate consolidation of seed markets, globally and in Brazil
11
Economic and environmental risks of seed market changes
16
An emerging politics around seed issues
18
“Seeds: Heritage of Humanity”: Seed Politics at the 2003 World Social Forum 21
Chapter Three
Case study: Bionatur Agroecological Seeds in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
25
The Campanha region: geographic setting and climate of the research region
26
Establishment of MST settlements in the study area
31
Local dietary customs and food consumer markets
36
Commercial seed production by Cooperal and the founding of Bionatur
38
Case Study: Bionatur Agroecological Seeds: founding and early trajectory
39
Bionatur seed production data, 1997 to 2001
43
Farmer income from seed production
45
Technical support, financing and project reassessment
48
Regional introduction of organic and agroecological farming
52
Competing options: vegetable seeds, staple foods, dairy and forage crops
54
Chapter Four
SINTRAF Cooperative’s native maize conservation and
the Agreste region’s community seed banks
57
Native maize seed conservation by the SINTRAF Cooperative
in Anchieta, Santa Catarina
58
Peasant community seed banks in the Agreste region of Paraíba state
62
The growth of agroecological farming and food markets in southern Brazil
67
Chapter Five
Analysis and conclusions
69
Constraints to Bionatur Seeds in 2002-2003
70
Comparative assessment of outcomes
73
Comparison of mission and goals
76
Environmental limitations to Bionatur’s operations
81
Organic seed production: introduction of unfamiliar farming practices
82
Organization of labor, dietary customs and economic asymmetry in local
communities
83
Conclusions
87
Recommendations for native seed conservation projects
89
References
92
List of Tables and Maps
MAP A: Brazil, by States
27
MAP B - The State of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
27
MAP C - The City of Bagé and the Campanha Plateau Region
28
TABLE 3A: Monthly precipitation, 2002, millimeters per month,
Hulha Negra municipality, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
29
TABLE 3B: Bionatur seed harvest yields, 1999 to 2001, by volume (kg.)
44
TABLE 3C: Number of local farms producing seed for Bionatur,
1997 to 2002
46
TABLE 3D: Total area in Bionatur seed production,
hectares, 1997-2002
46
TABLE 3E: Average area planted per farm for Bionatur seed,
hectares, 1997-2002
47
Acknowledgements
I want to kindly thank the people who helped me with the challenging process of
developing my thesis concepts and design and everyone who shared their advice as the
work progressed. I especially want to thank my thesis readers Ted Whitesell, John
Perkins and Russ Fox, who generously offered me their valuable time and
encouragement. Special thanks also goes to the staff and extension agents who
welcomed and hosted me in Brazil at the organizations M.S.T., Bionatur, COPITECH
and CETAP, and to Pampas Permaculture director João Rockett, all of whom shared key
ideas and information that made my thesis possible.
Chapter One
Native seed conservation in traditional farming systems
“Agricultural systems are human artifacts, and the determinants of agriculture do
not stop at the boundaries of the field”.
- Dr. Miguel A. Altieri, University of California, Irvine
Throughout history farmers have selected, saved and reproduced seeds from their
harvests to sow in coming seasons. The rich biodiversity of food crops and cultivars that
benefit humanity evolved over thousands of years by means of seasonal reproduction and
conservation of favored native seed types 1 . Farmers across the world today continue to
reproduce and save native seeds in order to breed and adapt crop cultivars to their needs.
In the world’s developing regions, small-scale farmers carefully select and store supplies
of seed to sow and exchange in coming seasons. Utilizing favored seed types and
practicing informal crop breeding, small-scale farmers adapt crop varieties over time to
diverse ecological zones, soils and climates. Native seeds are used by traditional peasant
farmers to diversify production, meet nutritional needs and honor cultural traditions.
As Dr. Miguel Altieri has stated, the conservation crop biodiversity is largely a
social process involving communities on a regional scale in the dissemination of crop
genetic resources through the circulation of seed lots between farms. In developing
countries, informal seed systems often are the norm, in which traditional or peasant
1
“Native seed” is defined here as a seed line with a history of regional use and adaptation, mainly by
traditional or native farmers. This may include heirloom seeds or landraces; crioulo seed is the Portuguese
term commonly used in Brazil. “Native seed” does not imply that the cultivar originated in that region.
farmers barter, gift and sell seed lots among family and neighbors, and in local markets.
Low-income farmers can gain many advantages by saving and exchanging native seed
types. Such benefits include maintaining a sustainable supply of seed from one season to
the next, avoiding high costs of commercial seed, increased crop diversity and the
adaptation of crops to different micro-ecosystems. Thus, conserving native seed types in
informal seed exchange systems is considered an adaptive means of enhancing smallfarm self-sufficiency, while diversifying goods for the local market and strengthening
food security. On a broader scale such strategies may over time increase crop genetic
resiliency and conserve regional agricultural biodiversity (Altieri and Nicholls, 2002; T.
Hodkin, et al. 2007).
In Brazil over the past twenty years, some associations of small-scale family
farmers and allied organizations in peasant (campesino) farm communities have carried
out projects that seek to reproduce and conserve traditional, heirloom and native seed
types; their work is the focal point of this study.
Thesis statement and key questions
In order to achieve positive outcomes, seed conservation projects in low-income
rural communities must be provided with solid technical support, adequate funding and a
clear project mission or strategy that meets the needs and wishes of participating farmers.
Understanding of local social and economic conditions requires surveys and assessment
of the affinity of local farmers for seed conservation activities, and support of farmers’
autonomous decision-making processes. Adequate mechanisms for credit and financial
2
support, technical training and adequate storage infrastructure must also be provided in
order to successfully carry out seed conservation activities. Ideally, the guiding mission
in such projects is based on involving local farmers in project design and decisionmaking, and in defining their own goals and needs in terms of seed resources.
I submit that that the native seed projects that I studied in Brazil partially achieved
successful outcomes in improving farmers’ access to seed resources. However, in my
main case study, I identified problems that called for a redesign of project mission and
goals in order to broaden farmer participation and improve conditions for conserving
regional seed resources.
I studied three native seed conservation projects established in small-farm
communities Brazil. My main goal was to learn as much as possible about communitybased projects by small-scale, low-income family farmers to conserve native seeds and
traditional crops. I set out to determine whether those projects had, or not, improved
access to reproducible, diversified seed lots that local farmers could utilize to ensure food
security, and as alternative sources of seed to avoid dependency on commercial markets.
Geographic context and nature of the research
I studied three small-scale seed conservation projects of family farmers in Brazil.
My main case and field study was focused on Bionatur Agroecological Seeds, a vegetable
seed project in Brazil’s southernmost state of Rio Grande do Sul (RS). This project took
place in communities established in the late 1980s by Brazil’s popular land reform
3
movement, the Movement of Landless Rural Workers 2 , which exists across the country
and is widely known and identified here as the M.S.T. I visited Bionatur Seeds in
southern Brazil for 3 weeks in February of 2003, where I conducted field research and
interviewed participants in the project.
For the purpose of comparative analysis I studied two more native seed projects in
Brazil, the SINTRAF Cooperative’s maize conservation project in Anchieta, Santa
Catarina state, and the community seed banks in the Agreste region of Paraíba state. I
was not able to visit the sites those projects due to travel and time restrictions, but I
learned about them from interviews with participants and the available literature.
The three seed conservation projects I studied shared goals in common including
increasing local capacity to reproduce and exchange native seed lines, and conservation
of regionally-adapted crop varieties.
The three projects differed in their strategic approach, in the level of farmer
participation, and in their results. I studied each project’s trajectory to determine what
advantages and benefits local farmers had gained from saving native seed types, and what
types of problems might have emerged. The objectives of my research were to identify
how specific factors had shaped each project’s outcomes, analyze problems and
constraints, and identify solutions.
During field research at Bionatur Agroecological Seeds in February 2003 I
interviewed project’s manager, staff technical extension agents and some farmers. I
collected as much information from project participants as the limited time and local
social norms allowed. At Bionatur Seeds, it soon became evident that economic and
technical difficulties and complex organizational and social dynamics had hindered the
2
In Portuguese, M.S.T. is called Movimento dos Trabalhadores Rurais Sem Terra.
4
project. Later, I interviewed seed conservation experts in other regions of Brazil, in the
cities of Florianopolis, Rio de Janeiro and Brasília.
The following key questions guided my research. What were the mission and
principal goals of each project around seed conservation? Who were the participants, and
what modes of participation characterized each initiative? To what extent did each
project succeed in improving access to genetically-diversified and affordable seed
supplies? What problems had impacted the projects? To what extent had these seed
projects helped to strengthen local food security and conserve regional agricultural
biodiversity? The research led me to seek solutions that might be of use to seed saving
projects in small farm communities. My recommendations are presented in the final
chapter. It is my hope that my thesis research can contribute, at least in small part, to
seed conservation initiatives in similar social and geographic settings.
Research methods and overview
I set out to learn about the establishment and historical trajectory of each seed
project, their evolving missions and goals, local environmental and economic conditions,
and modes of farmer participation. My approach to the research was based on interviews
with project participants during my field studies and on review of the literature.
At Bionatur Seeds I conducted interviews with Bionatur staff, extension agents
from non-governmental organizations and farmers. I provided printed questionnaires, but
my intended use of those was limited by a lack of predisposition among farmers to
participate in formal interviews. I learned a great deal from many group discussions and
5
informal conversations with local agronomists and farmers. Social dynamics in M.S.T.
farm settlements are characterized constant group discussions of community issues; my
fluency in Portuguese allowed me to understand relevant issues and to participate in such
meetings. I also conducted rapid visual surveys of farms and Bionatur’s facilities at local
settlements, accompanied by project “technicians”, i.e., extension agents. My field
research was limited in scope by time constraints and social dynamics. A more complete
understanding of native seed conservation projects in Brazil’s developing regions will
require extensive participatory research by many agricultural scientists, technical experts
and farmers in diverse locations over long periods of time.
My analysis was mainly qualitative and informed in part by theory from
agroecology and political ecology. In my review of the literature, I read many books and
publications, including work on agroecology by Altieri, Nicholls, Rossett and Oldfield,
on seeds and plant genetic resources by Kloppenburg, Mooney, and Jarvis et al., on
political ecology by Wright, Wolford, Martinez-Allier, Forsyth and many others. I relied
on Brazilian researchers for information on two of the seed projects described in chapter
four, and about social dynamics in M.S.T. communities.
In Chapter Two I present an overview of the broader issues of seed industry
consolidation and seed politics in Brazil, with an overview of the process of
monopolization of Brazil’s seed industry by transnational corporations. I describe the
M.S.T.’s counterpoint role of opposing private sector domination of seed resources and
of promoting native seed conservation in peasant communities, and I discuss the
movement’s political discourse on the right of farmers to have access to seed resources,
based on an emerging social principle of food sovereignty.
6
The principal case study of this thesis is presented in Chapter Three. At the time
of my field research, Bionatur Agroecological Seeds operated as a small organic
vegetable seed company owned by Cooperal, an M.S.T.-affiliated regional farmers
cooperative, and assisted by a set of farm extension agencies. I learned firsthand about
Bionatur’s founding, history and evolving mission. I collected information on its seed
production lines and stocks, storage and processing, farmer participation, and its marketbased approach. I examined data on land use, income and farmer participation to
determine advantages and disincentives to seed production. I also collected information
on production options, organization of labor, the social background of participants and
local dietary norms. I took part in group discussions on Bionatur’s evident problems,
and about the social dynamics and cultural patterns in local communities. Bionatur’s
staff was forthright in discussions and interviews. However, Bionatur provided limited
printed data; few documents on project planning and seed production were made
available.
In Chapter Four I examine two native seed saving projects in small-farm
communities in other regions; the SINTRAF Small Farm Cooperative’s maize seed
conservation project in Anchieta, Santa Catarina state, and the AS-PTA community seed
banks of the Agreste region in Paraíba state. Both of those projects provided reference
points for comparative analysis of Bionatur. I attempted to determine how and why each
project evolved differently, and what lessons might be learned from their trajectories. In
Chapter Five I present conclusions and suggestions for implementing native seed projects
in peasant farm communities.
7
Researcher’s background and inspiration for thesis research
In the past I have studied and researched many aspects of traditional agriculture
and rural development in Brazil and Latin America. In the Master in Environmental
Study program of the Evergreen State College I studied land use, agricultural systems and
political ecology, often with a focus on Brazil. I lived in Brazil in the past and am fluent
in Portuguese. In 1990 an undergraduate at Evergreen I carried out independent field
research on environmental issues and organizations in Brazil. In the late 1980s I worked
in organic produce distribution in Olympia, Washington. I am not a specialist in seed
genetics or technologies; my focus is the political ecology of developing regions.
The direct inspiration for the thesis research came from readings and from people
I met. In early 2000 California State University historian Dr. Angus Wright spoke at the
Evergreen State College about his own field research at M.S.T. communities in southern
Brazil. He spoke eloquently about the M.S.T.’s work to introduce alternative farming
methods at settlements. In their book “Inherit the Earth”, Dr. Wright and co-author
Wendy Wolcott briefly discuss the production of organic seeds by M.S.T. farmers in the
Bagé region where I carried out my case study (Wright and Wolford, 2003).
In late 2002, Brazilian M.S.T. agronomist and seed project coordinator Ciro
Correa visited the Evergreen State College. I helped host Mr. Correa and interpreted for
his public presentations in Olympia. Mr. Correa talked about the struggle for livelihood
of M.S.T. farmers, and in particular about Bionatur Seed’s work to promote organic
production of vegetable seeds. As national coordinator for seed production in the M.S.T.,
Mr. Correa was involved in public outreach and fundraising for Bionatur Seeds. He has
8
written about the M.S.T.’s efforts to ensure land rights and a sustainable livelihood for
peasant farmers and on resisting corporate domination of Brazil’s farming systems
(Correa, 2002). Mr. Correa extended to me an invitation to visit Bionatur Seeds in Brazil
and he helped coordinate my contacts and travel in Brazil. Thus, following preliminary
research I went to Brazil in January 2003 to learn more about Bionatur Seeds, meet its
participants, and to learn as much as I could about this and other native seed conservation
projects by Brazil’s peasant farmers.
*
*
*
*
9
Chapter Two
Seeds: traditional technology, market commodity and political symbol
“Food sovereignty is the basis for forging a free, sovereign society that has the
right and the capability to produce its own food”.
- João Pedro Stédile, economist and spokesperson for the M.S.T. 3
The past two decades have witnessed a transformation in Brazil’s commercial
seed markets, along with the emergence of a new popular political discourse around seed
issues. In this chapter I focus on changes in the structure and ownership of Brazil’s seed
markets, on increasing consolidation of seed markets by transnational agribusiness firms,
and on how that process might affect seed options for Brazilian small-scale farmers.
Such topics are relevant here because a key goal of the seed projects I studied was to
ensure farmers’ access to reproducible, well-adapted seeds. This important goal is
considered by some to be at risk from corporate monopolization of seed markets.
In Brazil, rural social movements and peasant farmers’ coalitions have organized
in opposition to corporate control of seed markets. Many small farmers associations and
non-governmental organizations in that country work actively to improve low-income
farmers’ access to seed resources and to conserve traditional crop diversity. Their
political activities include building international activist coalitions around seed issues,
3
Quoted in an interview in the newspaper La Jornada, México, August 27, 2003.
10
carrying out protests and direct actions against transnational seed companies, and
organizing conferences and public festivals to celebrate native seed diversity.
The M.S.T. and the global peasant farmers’ organization Vía Campesina are
central players in the politics of seed resources. These organizations have evolved a
determined political discourse that advocates for peasant farmers’ rights to have full
access to affordable, well-adapted seed supplies. This goal is expressed in the principle
of food sovereignty, or farmers’ rights of access to land and the means of production,
including control of reproducible seed supplies (Vía Campesina, 2003).
Corporate consolidation of seed markets, globally and in Brazil
As modern industrialized farming extends over the global agricultural landscape,
the seed industry has become both more technically specialized and controlled by
ownership of large corporate firms. In modern agriculture, seeds have become a key
trade commodity largely supplied and owned by a few international agribusiness
corporations. Laboratory-improved seed lines are constantly being developed by
professional plant breeders at biotechnology firms; such seeds are often genetically
uniform, high-yielding varieties (HYV), and sometimes genetically modified in plant
breeding laboratories. Commercial seed types are often designed for use in large-scale
mechanized farming, sometimes to be used in “packages” along with complimentary
agrichemical herbicides and fertilizers (Mooney, 2003; Kloppenburg, 1988a).
The control of seeds and plant genetic resources by powerful commercial interests
has historical roots in the 17th and 18th centuries. As European colonial powers
11
established plantations in the Americas, plant materials and seed germplasm of Old
World crops such as sugarcane, indigo and coffee were transferred to the new colonies.
Later, British trading companies took rubber, coffee, tobacco, sisal, and other cultivars
from the Americas to grow in England’s colonies in India and Southeast Asia. Plant
genetic transfers at times involved contraband of germplasm, as in the case of the rubber
tree (Hevea brasiliensis) whose seeds were smuggled from Brazil by British agents in
1877, eventually leading to establishment of vast rubber plantations in southern Asia
(Brockway, 1988).
Contraband of seed resources occurred more recently in Brazil. From 1999 to
2004 transgenic (genetically-modified) soybean seeds were made illegal for use in
farming by decree of the Federal government, yet such seeds were smuggled extensively
from Argentina into southern Brazil, where farmers could buy them at below-market
prices. By 2004 pressure from agribusiness interests led to legalization of transgenic
soybeans in Brazil and to subsequent rapid expansion of industrial-scale soybean
production across the country, with serious environmental impacts, including
deforestation of large areas of the eastern Amazon rainforest.
Brazil has experienced the rapid growth of large-scale industrialized farming over
the past half century. The expansion of mechanized chemical-based farming was
accompanied by consolidation of the country’s seed industry by large international
agribusiness and biotechnology corporations, often by means of buyouts of smaller
national seed companies (Wilkinson and Castelli, 2000).
Some laboratory-improved seed lines sold by biotechnology corporations,
including Monsanto’s RoundupReady© soybeans, are genetically modified to resist
12
heavy applications of herbicides. Although such technologies may be well suited to
farming in large-scale monocultures, they are not necessarily well-suited to the needs and
farming practices of small farmers. Agrichemicals involved in industrialized farming can
be costly and may pollute local water supplies and soils. Some commercial seed lines
may not be well adapted to regional soil and climate conditions, nor suited to the market
economy of peasant farm communities.
Smallholder family farmers require reproducible seeds that are well adapted to
local farming practices, local food needs and market conditions. High costs of
commercial seed can be a problem for small farmers. While capitalized large and
medium-scale farms can readily absorb cost of commercial seed, family farmers with low
net incomes may find commercial seed lines to be prohibitively expensive. Thus, small
farmers who are not able to reproduce and save seed lots on the farm may suffer
financially from dependency on the purchase of commercial seed.
Improved commercial seeds types are often considered genetically less diverse
and less easily reproducible on the farm than native and traditional seed types. Hybrid
and bioengineered seed lines are often not reproducible and require seasonal purchase.
Some new seed biotechnologies are patented subject to strict contractual terms for use.
Some seed experts point to risks from loss of crop biodiversity as a consequence of
corporate consolidation of seed markets.
According to University of Wisconsin sociologist and author Jack R.
Kloppenburg, Jr. transfers of commercial seed biotechnologies and free-market
commodification of seed resources during the later part of the 20th century have
accelerated the transformation of agricultural systems. He views the commercialization
13
of hybridized seed types and the legalization of plant breeders’ rights for private
corporations as processes that lead to increased monopolization of seed markets by large
transnational biotechnology corporations, including Monsanto, Cargill, Syngenta, BASF
and others (Kloppenburg, 1988a). Kloppenburg puts forth that development of
hybridized and genetically engineered crop varieties can result in what he calls, “radical
changes in the political economy of plant breeding and seed production”. He refers to
seed hybridization as a transformation of seed from a “use-value to an exchange-value”,
and views seed commodification, or the transformation of seeds into a trade commodity,
as a process that has facilitated monopolization of seed and farm supply markets in hands
of corporate agribusiness (Kloppenburg, 1988 a: 93).
Kloppenburg has written extensively on the commercial seed industry’s impact on
agricultural biodiversity and has examined the global seed market transformation from a
Marxist perspective. He deplores the end of the historic value of seeds and plant
germplasm as public goods, i.e., “common-heritage” resources, and he criticizes the
transformation of seed into a laboratory-modified commercialized commodity.
Kloppenburg points to the economic inequity caused by the separation of farmers from
reproduction of seeds in their fields, and from, “substantial, even extreme, dependence on
‘imported’ genetic materials” (Kloppenburg, 1988 a: 169).
Indeed, over the past two decades the structure and ownership of the global seed
industry have been transformed as biotechnology corporations have gained consolidated
ownership of vast sectors of the global seed industry. In Brazil, a few transnational
agribusiness firms, including Monsanto, Cargill and Dow, have expanded their range of
operations in multiple corporate mergers and through buyouts of smaller seed companies.
14
According to a study by Wilkinson and Castelli, Brazil’s commercial seed
markets have differentiated and segmented sectors. Each sector has been impacted by
new seed technologies and by the increased scale of farming. They suggest these
changes are, “intensely interlinked with modernization…concentration, specialization,
and regionalization of production” (Wilkinson and Castelli, 2000: 29).
Wilkinson and Castelli characterize Brazil’s commercial seed markets as
comprising three principal sectors: A) hybrid seeds, mainly maize, sorghum, sunflower,
and soybean varieties; B) varietal seeds, such as open-pollinated wheat, soybeans, rice,
and cotton; and, C) horticultural or green vegetable seeds.
Brazil’s hybrid seed market is seen as highly consolidated by Wilson and Castelli.
Development of maize hybrids in Brazil was carried out initially by the Brazilian seed
company Agroceres from its founding in 1945 until the company was purchased by
Monsanto in 1998. Wilkinson and Castelli point out that in Brazil by 1999 four large
transnational corporations conducted 90% of total commercial hybrid seed sales:
Monsanto, with 60% of total sales, followed by Pioneer with 14%, Novartis with 11%,
Dow with 5%, and the only Brazilian-owned company, Unimilho, with 5% of sales
(Wilkinson and Castelli, 2000).
The varietal seed sector is the market for open-pollinated varieties; mainly wheat,
soybeans, rice, and cotton. This sector of the market is more diversified in Brazil than is
the hybrid sector, with a stronger presence of regional cooperatives and companies, as
well as public plant breeders such as the private-Federal agricultural research agency
EMBRAPA 4 . According to Wilkinson and Castelli, in the 1996-97 season 40% of total
farmland planted in Brazil was sowed in seeds developed by EMBRAPA plant breeders.
4
EMBRAPA: Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa em Agricultura.
15
Disease-resistant EMBRAPA soybean has contributed to the rapid expansion of soybean
production across Brazil. Transnational seed corporations are now making inroads into
the varietal seed market (Wilkinson and Castelli, 2000).
The smallest and most diversely segmented sector of the seed market in Brazil is
for horticultural vegetables. Thirty percent of green-vegetable seed production is directed
to large-scale mechanized horticulture; two corporations, the Mexican firm Seminis and
Japanese-owned Agroflora dominate 60% of this sub-segment. A second “semiprofessional” sub-segment produces 45% of green vegetable seed, mostly by three private
companies: Horticeres (owned by Seminis), Isla, and Top-Seeds. Third and smallest subsector is the “envelope segment”, comprised of small-scale vegetable seed producers who
sell and barter seeds regionally and locally, and who produce a quarter of horticultural
seeds in Brazil (Wilkinson and Castelli, 2000). Bionatur Seeds, the main case study here,
was in 2003 a small for-profit vegetable seed producer within the envelope segment.
Economic and environmental risks of seed market changes
Not every smallholder farmer can easily select and save adequate supplies of seed
from each harvest. The capability and choice of each farmer to save seed depends on
many factors, including the availability of labor, storage, technical training and skill in
seed conservation, food needs, farm income and market conditions.
As many native and regional seed lines disappear across the world, and as sales of
modern “improved” seed lines increase exponentially, more low-income farmers may
face difficult choices about the type and source of the seeds they utilize. As mentioned,
16
some seed experts posit that new seed technologies pose grave economic risks to small
farmers. The nature of such risks is complex. Farmers can become dependent on
expensive improved seed lines that are marketed along with complimentary agrichemical
“packages”. To reduce labor, small farmers who in the past reproduced and saved seed
from each harvest may cease doing so if non-reproducible commercial seed lines become
more easily available on the market. Some commercial seed lines may be unsuitable for
traditional farming practices, or not well adapted to extant soil conditions and climate
stress. Some commercial cultivars may not meet local dietary needs or market demand.
Low-income family farm sectors may have limited technical capability to reproduce and
store seed lots, and thus can face risks in maintaining seed supplies (Correa, 2003;
Stédile, 2003; Wilkinson and Castelli, 2000).
Much has been written about the problem of genetic erosion of agricultural crop
diversity. From research in Perú comes evidence of the genetic erosion of traditional
potato varieties that have fallen out of use in some localities. Seed experts Cary Fowler
and Pat Roy Mooney cite Dr. Carlos Ochoa of the International Center for the Potato who
in the 1980s found that 45 traditional potato varieties formerly cultivated in two areas of
northern Peru had disappeared from local farms following the introduction of a single
“improved” commercial variety (Fowler and Mooney, 1990).
Fowler and Mooney have called hybrid seed varieties, “the major force causing
the loss of our agricultural heritage”. They cite the case of Brussels sprouts production in
Great Britain, where a study by Innes showed that 24 older or heirloom varieties had
disappeared from catalogues between 1965 and 1974 following introduction of hybrid
varieties (Fowler and Mooney, 1990, citing N.L. Innes, 1975: 74). In developing
17
regions, hybridized commercial soybean, maize, and rice seed have come to dominate
large segments of the market (Kloppenburg, 1988a; Wilkinson and Castelli, 2000).
Genetic contamination of conventional and traditional cultivars by transgenic
crops through cross-pollination is another environmental problem. A well-known
example is the contamination of traditional teosintle maize varieties by transgenic maize
genes in Oaxaca and other regions of México (Altieri and Nicholls, 2003; Quist and
Chapela, 2001).
An emerging politics around seed issues
Across the world, conflicts and acts of social resistance have resulted from
popular opposition to seed market monopolization by agribusiness and introduction of
genetically modified seeds. Political strife has resulted around seed issues on a global
scale. Peasant farmers’ movements in Brazil, India and Mexico have carried out direct
actions and land occupations to protest agribusiness monopolization of seed resources
and transgenic seeds. In Brazil, activists groups opposed to transgenics have destroyed
experimental plots of such crops on several occasions. In their view, both transgenics
and corporate consolidation of commercial seed markets lead to losses of native crop
biodiversity and economic risks for struggling family farmers.
Thus, in the developing regions over the past decade, agricultural seed itself has
become a powerful political symbol for rural social movements. As activist
organizations advocate for peasant farmers’ right to control seed resources, they also
promote native seed conservation initiatives and seed exchange networks.
18
Brazil’s peasant farmers’ land reform movement, the Movement of Landless
Rural Workers (M.S.T.) plays a prominent role in seed issues. The M.S.T.’s national
policy guidelines call for peasant farmers to control self-reproducible native seed
resources as a technical and economic imperative, and as an inalienable social right.
These goals are clearly expressed in their motto, “Seeds in the hands of farmers”.
Bionatur Agroecological Seeds to some extent represents a model project for the
ideal of food sovereignty and access to seed resources (Correa, 2003). However, it is
open to question whether the project by 2003 had met goals expressed in the M.S.T and
Vía Campesina’s declarations on food sovereignty. The following section describes an
event on seed issues that I attended in 2003 that helps illustrate the social and political
importance of seed issues in Brazil.
“Seeds: Heritage of Humanity”: Seed Politics at the 2003 World Social Forum
In January 2003 I attended the World Social Forum 5 in Porto Alegre, Brazil,
where a new international campaign on seed issues was being inaugurated. A large
public event called “Seeds: Heritage of Humanity” 6 took place on January 24th, cosponsored by the peasant farmers movements Vía Campesina, the M.S.T., and other
organizations. An estimated ten thousand people attended the event; the crowd nearly
5
The World Social Forum is a yearly week-long international mega-conference of international activists, political
organizers, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that work on many fronts, including agriculture reform and
peasant farmers rights; the first one took place in 2001.
6
In Portuguese: “Sementes: Patrimonio da Humanidade”.
19
filled a large indoor stadium. Farmers, activists and seed experts from several countries
were in attendance, along with the general public.
At the event a panel of seed experts spoke about peasant farmers’ needs and
rights, and about seed politics and seed market transformation. The panel of speakers
included Dr. Pat Roy Mooney, a Canadian researcher and writer on seed biotechnologies,
U.S. agronomist Dr. Peter Rossett (formerly with Food First), Ms. Francisca Rodriguez
who represented the Chilean native seed conservation organization Anamuri, and Dr.
João Pedro Stédile, an economist and principal spokesperson for the M.S.T.
During the presentation, the speakers highlighted their concerns about seed
genetic modification, increased dominance of global seed markets by transnational
agribusiness, problems related to seed patents and plant ownership rights, the needs and
struggles of peasant family farmers and the erosion of agricultural biodiversity, including
the loss of many open-pollinated native seed lines. Dr. Mooney spoke about ecological
risks of genetically-modified seed types, such as non-reproducible Terminator ® 7 seed
lines developed by Monsanto. Dr. Rossett spoke about the deep cultural and ecological
significance of native seeds for indigenous communities and about new seed conservation
initiatives taking place worldwide. He characterized peasant family farmers as traditional
stewards of the world’s agricultural genetic heritage (Seed Heritage event, 2003).
Ms. Francisca Rodriguez of the Chilean organization Anamuri portrayed seeds as
the rich cultural heritage of peasant societies; as “a gift of collective societies, not to be
monopolized, appropriated, or privatized”. Ms. Rodriguez also stressed the political
significance of popular struggles for food sovereignty, a political framing around the
concept of food security (Seeds Heritage event 2003; Rodriguez, 2003).
7
Terminator seeds are genetically designed to become sterile and non-reproducible prior to harvest.
20
The final speaker was Dr. Stédile who made a trenchant speech calling for peasant
farmers and social movements to unite and work toward, “land, social justice and
economic reform for the emancipation of millions of Brazil’s small farmers”. He
proclaimed the founding of an international coalition of peasant farmers to, “build a new
model of sustainable agriculture, and a society of justice and solidarity”, to ensure
“access to land and biodiversity”, and to help to secure farmers’ access to “seeds, health,
and education”. He called for organized opposition to transgenic (genetically-modified)
seed lines, for the cancellation of corporate seed patents and seed ownership rights, and
for an end to control of seed markets by transnational firms. Dr. Stédile summed up his
rousing speech with the phrase, “seeds in the hands of farmers” 8 . The proposed strategy
was to ensure small farmers’ control over native seed resources by establishing projects
to reproduce and conserve native seeds (Seeds Heritage event, WSF 2003; Stédile, 2003).
Each panelist offered concrete proposals, including forming community-managed
seed banks and regional seed exchange networks, strengthening education and technical
assistance in peasant communities, and promoting the cultural and nutritional value of
native seeds and regional crops to the general public. In sum, Dr. Stédile and the other
speakers articulated a political position that linked peasant farmers’ social rights and
livelihood to control over reproducible seed supplies (Seed Heritage event, 2003).
The Seeds: Heritage of Humanity event lasted for 90 minutes and the audience
appeared engaged throughout. The event climaxed with a multimedia performance of
music and poetry, waving flags and declarations exalting the value of seeds and land.
Many in the audience were visibly moved. As the crowd left the stadium volunteers
distributed packets of vegetable seeds to each spectator. I later learned that up to 10,000
8
I have slightly modified this slogan as the title of my thesis.
21
seed packets, with most labeled “Bionatur Agroecological Seeds”, were distributed to the
public at the event (CETAP, 2003).
Following the Seeds Heritage event I joined thousands of people in a march to
another stadium where Brazil’s newly-elected President Ignacio Lula da Silva was
scheduled to address the public. The mood was joyous as marchers sang M.S.T. anthems
until we reached the stadium. However, President da Silva had already left; many
expressed their disappointment. Even so, the Seeds Heritage event seemed an auspicious
beginning to my field research.
The Seeds Heritage event was significant in my research because it showed that
control over seed resources had become a pressing political issue for Brazil’s peasant
farmers and rural social movements. Political debates and conflicts over seed access and
food sovereignty had become widespread in Brazil.
M.S.T. literature on the “Seeds: Heritage of Humanity” event describes it as a
campaign to “reaffirm and struggle for the historic right of people to access and cultivate
the biodiversity of the planet”. M.S.T. seed coordinator Ciro Correa has written that the
seed campaign is directed toward, “the rescue of peasants’ autonomy to produce their
own seeds”, and “as a fundamental instrument for construction of a new model of
agriculture based on agroecology, the reconstruction of the (agricultural) landscape, the
promotion of food security and sovereignty, and the restoration of the productive capacity
of soils (Correa, 2005)”.
The global peasant farmers’ movement Vía Campesina defines food sovereignty
as, “the right of all people to produce their own food and to shape the conditions
necessary for sustaining their own food production”, and, “to define their own
22
agricultural and food policy, without dumping (of farm goods and supplies) from outside
countries.” These ethical values prioritize, “access to land, water, and credit” and “free
access to seed” (Vía Campesina, 2003).
During that week in Porto Alegre, I met with Bionatur managers and interpreted
languages in meetings between Bionatur representatives and potential donors from
international foundations. I visited M.S.T. settlements in the Porto Alegre area. At the
time I was formulating important questions about whether the new political discourse on
seeds and food sovereignty was translating into practical results in M.S.T. settlements.
Following my time in Porto Alegre I traveled with a lively group of M.S.T.
farmers about 180 km south to the town of Candiota, where I was based for three weeks
of field research, hosted by Bionatur staff members. I carried out interviews and learned
a great deal about Bionatur and its activities. I participated in many group discussions
with extension agents and farmers, collected information, and observed conditions on
local farms in the study area.
At the time, Bionatur Seeds appeared to be the M.S.T.’s main seed saving project
in Brazil. As such, it represented a pilot project in M.S.T. communities for the ideals and
proposals brought forth at the Seeds: Heritage of Humanity event. However, I soon
learned that a series of setbacks had adversely impacted Bionatur. In initial interviews,
coordinator Correa and operations manager P revealed that serious problems had
hindered the project. Two consecutive seasons of high rainfall had damaged seed crops
and resulted in spoilage of seed stocks. The project suffered from limited farmer
participation and lack of financial credit and infrastructure. Bionatur’s coordinators were
23
frank in admitting that the project was practically at a standstill; they were actively
searching for funding and technical assistance.
This sobering perspective brought out key questions in my research. What
constraints had emerged at Bionatur, what were the causes, and what solutions might be
found? Why was farmer participation limited? Could the Bionatur project meet the
ambitious social and political goals articulated at the Seeds: Heritage event? The project
coordinators cited possible causes for the problems at Bionatur. They stressed the need
for participative diagnostic surveys. During my field research some of the technical
constraints and social dynamics underlying Bionatur’s problems became more evident.
The main case study of Bionatur Agroecological Seeds is presented in Chapter Three.
*
*
*
*
24
Chapter Three
Case study: Bionatur Agroecological Seeds in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
The main case study in my thesis research was focused on the work of Bionatur
Agroecological Seeds 9 , a vegetable seed project in the southern Brazilian state of Rio
Grande do Sul. Bionatur Seeds was founded in 1998 by the regional farm cooperative
Cooperal, affiliated to the Movement of Landless Rural Workers (M.S.T.). Most of
Cooperal’s 900 member-farmers settled in the region in the early 1990s by means of land
reform initiatives guided by the M.S.T. In this chapter, I present a history of this seed
project based on what I learned in early 2003 during my field research in the region.
I begin with an overview of the geography and history of farming in the region,
including the area’s climate, soil types, migration patterns and social origins of the rural
communities. This should help to illustrate how environmental factors and social
variables helped shape the region’s agriculture.
Later in the chapter I examine Bionatur’s goals and strategies, and the roles of
founders, agents and farmers, based on interviews and discussions held with staff and
collected documents. I looked at the project’s seed lines, yields, processing and storage
facilities, number of seed producers over time, extent of distribution and market access,
and the roles of extension agents. I took part in participative discussions with Bionatur
9
In Portuguese, Sementes Agroecologicas Bionatur.
25
founders, coordinators, extension agents and farmers during which we discussed
Bionatur’s evolving mission and organizational structure, patterns of farmer participation,
evident problems and more.
My main goals in the case study were to determine what benefits and resources
Bionatur Seeds had provided to local farmers in its 6-year trajectory, what had been
accomplished, what problems had emerged, and what potential might exist for successful
outcomes and expansion of the project. My analysis of Bionatur’s outcomes is presented
both in this and in the concluding chapter.
The Campanha region: geographic setting and climate of the research region
The Campanha region is a low-lying plateau of prairie grassland and farmland
located in southernmost Rio Grande do Sul state (RS), adjacent to Brazil’s border with
Uruguay. The plateau ascends gently eastward toward a small range that separates it
from lowland plains along Rio Grande do Sul’s Atlantic coast; to the west the Campanha
descends toward the Alto Uruguay River. The plateau averages roughly 200 meters
above sea level in the study area; it is the headwaters of four rivers, the Ibicuí, Negro,
Camaguá and Jaguarão. The study area is located at approximately 31’ latitude S, 54’
longitude W (IBGE, 2005; see Map A and Map B on the following page).
The Campanha plateau’s rolling rangeland is interrupted by occasional hilly areas
and sparse patches of secondary and scrub forest. Eroded ravines slice many hillsides;
small bogs and wetlands are found in low-lying zones.
26
Map A: Brazil, by States
Map B - The State of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
(The Campanha region is circled).
27
Map C - The City of Bagé and the Campanha Plateau Region
Topographic relief with higher elevations in lighter colors; roads in grey, railroad lines in
dotted red
28
Bagé
Candiota
Conquista da
Fronteira
Cattle ranches and vast crop monocultures of soybeans cover much of the land in
lower altitudes of the Campanha, interspersed with medium and small farms. The
region’s small towns and settlements are linked by clay-surface roads and a few paved
highways. A railroad line runs to the coast and beyond. The city of Bagé (estimated
population of 120,000) is the region’s commercial hub, about 35 km northwest of the
study area settlements (see Map C).
The Campanha is located in Brazil’s temperate climatic zone. The humid
temperate climate shows more seasonal temperature variation than in subtropical zones of
northern Rio Grande do Sul. Rio Grande do Sul’s climate is classified in the Koppen
system as type Cfa, or “wet with mild winters, hot summers, and no dry season”,
29
although dry spells do occur (Bell, 1998:13). Average annual temperature in the region is
17 o C., with a monthly temperature average of 12.2 o C in July the coldest month, and
24.2 o C in February, the hottest. Frosts can occur from April to October, with the most
severe in July and August (EMATER, 2003; Moreira, 2003). Rainfall in the Campanha
region averages 1,350 millimeters per year, with more rainfall in the warm season from
December to March than the drier cooler season from May to July.
From 2002 to 2005 the Campanha region suffered abrupt changes in precipitation,
in which two years of extremely high rainfall were followed by two years of severe
drought. In 2002 total annual rainfall at the town of Hulha Negra was measured at 2,921
mm, or 1,490 mm above the normal average (Moreira, 2003; see table 3B).
TABLE 3A Monthly precipitation, 2002, millimeters per month.
Hulha Negra municipality, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
(Source: EMATER Regional Office, Hulha Negra, cited in Moreira, 2003)
2002
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec total
mm
191 148 269 357 110 184 196 313 248 283 264 358 2,921
During 2002 and 2003 long periods of heavy rainfall caused widespread flooding
and soil saturation that severely impacted farming in the region. In February 2003, I
observed heavy rains and flooded zones in low areas, which impeded transportation for
days on clay surface roads. In 2002, high rainfall and humidity led to crop losses and
spoilage of seed supplies. At Bionatur, seed production and storage were adversely
impacted by the persistent rains. Coordinators and farmers reported that much of the
company’s seed stock in storage was lost. Saturation of clay-based soils impeded sowing
30
of new seed crops (Correa, 2003; Rockett, 2003).
Two years later in 2005 a severe drought impacted harvests across Brazil’s three
southern states, posing a different set of challenges for the region’s farmers. In March of
2005 average monthly rainfall fell to between 40 and 80 mm in parts of Rio Grande do
Sul. The drought resulted in crop losses across southern Brazil, in particular of soybean
and maize harvests. Loss of up to 80% of the 2005 soybean crop was recorded in Rio
Grande do Sul. With a 61% drop in average soybean yields per hectare across southern
Brazil, lost revenues for the state’s soybean farmers was estimated at R$ 600,000,000 10 .
Maize yields across Rio Grande do Sul dropped by 65% in 2005 (Appasul, 2005; Osava,
2005). It is not known to what extent the drought affected Bionatur’s operations in 2005.
The choice of seed types may have been an aggravating factor causing severe
impacts on crops in southern Brazil during the 2005 drought. Reports from the state seed
producers association and the press highlighted the need for well-adapted seed to
withstand climate stress. Commercial seed lines in widespread use were reported to be
inadequately adapted to drought conditions. In 2004 an estimated 70% of Rio Grande do
Sul’s soybean crop was planted in contraband transgenic seed. According to Narciso
Barison, president of APASSUL, Rio Grande do Sul’s statewide seed producers’
association, “transgenic seeds are smuggled into Brazil from Argentina and are not
adapted to the local climate, so they proved less resistant to the water shortage”
(APPASUL report, 2005).
As the 2005 drought set in farmers who wished to return to using well-adapted
regional varietal soybean seeds found that commercial stocks had been exhausted.
10
The exchange rate was approximately R$ 3 to US$ 1 in early 2003.
31
Smaller seed companies producing varietal soybean seeds had been edged out of the
market by contraband transgenic seed, which sold at below market price. It may be
inferred from those reports that during the 2005 drought lack well-adapted soybean seed
supplies may have exacerbated crop loss in the region (Appasul, 2005; Osava, 2005).
Crop failure due to climate extremes highlights the importance of maintaining
high levels of crop diversity and seed types that are well adapted to resist climate stress.
Improved access to native seed varieties may have helped mitigate crop loss during the
2005 season. This situation points to problems in the capacity of commercial seed
companies in Brazil to meet demand for regionally well-adapted seed types.
Establishment of MST settlements in the study area
From 1988 to 1997 many landless peasant families affiliated with the M.S.T.
migrated to the Campanha region to establish new homesteads and small farms on land
obtained through Brazil’s constitutionally mandated land reform process 11 . The largest
MST settlement in the study area is Conquista da Fronteira, where the Cooperal Regional
Cooperative and Bionatur’s seed storage and processing facilities are located. Bionatur’s
administrative office is in the small town of Candiota, about 23 kilometers from
Conquista da Fronteira. In 2003 most of Bionatur’s management, staff and extension
agents lived in Candiota; farms of Bionatur seed producers were dispersed among the
area’s settlements (see Map C).
Land reform settlements in the Conquista da Fronteira area consist of about 1,200
11
The Campanha region is estimated to have about 40% of total MST settlements in RS state (Navarro,
Moraes, and Menezes, 1997).
32
small family farms, with an estimated population of 8,000 people. Total area of local
M.S.T.-founded settlements was estimated at 18,000 hectares, but according to Bionatur
Manager P, a well-defined land demarcation and a complete census of local settlements
had not taken place as of 2003 (Manager P, 2003).
The Cooperal Regional Farmer Cooperative is the principal farmers’ organization
at Conquista da Fronteira; most farmers who work with Bionatur Seeds are members.
Bionatur’s seed processing facilities and two storage warehouses were located at the
center of the settlement, along with Cooperal’s offices, a small grocery store and an
abandoned school building. This crossroads did not have a public square, commonplace
in most Brazilian small towns; farms at the settlement were widely dispersed.
Conquista da Fronteira is connected by rough clay-surface roads to the nearby
towns of Hulha Negra (population 4,300; 18 kilometers N) and Candiota (pop. 1,000; 23
km. NE) and to the city of Bagé, about 35 km. NW. The settlement is laid out in a broad
low-density pattern; most homesteads here are set apart from each other. This is in
contrast with other M.S.T. settlements I observed in other areas in which compact
agrovilas of closely clustered homes are the settlement pattern.
According to Bionatur staff there was little published data available on conditions
in local area settlements, in part due to lack of capacity to carry out in-depth surveys and
gather data. A relatively high rate of migration between local settlements and other areas
also made it difficult to track local conditions (Manager P, 2003).
Bionatur staff estimated the average size of local family farms at around 23
hectares. M.S.T. settlements in the study area were established on areas of higher
ground. On some farms arable land is limited by abrupt ravines and eroded slopes. The
33
flat low plateau surrounding the settlement is occupied by large-scale private farms and
cattle ranches, with evidently richer soils.
Soils types in the study area are characterized as clay with a thin topsoil layer,
taxonomically classified as vertisols. Brady describes vertisols as, “soils with high
content of swelling clay; deep wide cracks develop in dry periods (Brady, 1984)”. Local
soil is reddish-orange in color with a dense clay texture, shallow horizon and somewhat
poor drainage characteristics.
According to interviewed agronomist Moreira and farmer Rockett, soil types in
the settlement are fertile enough to farm, but difficult in texture for tillage. Rockett and
Moreira described local topsoil as relatively high in organic matter (up to 4.5%), with
slightly acidic pH and a high level of base saturation (CTC). Such characteristics allow
for two to three seasons of farming with minimal fertilization, after which soil fertility
rapidly declines (Moreira, 2003; Rockett, 2003).
Local extension agents and farmers agreed that the main environmental constraint
to farming in the area was the difficulty of tillage on waterlogged soils during rainy
seasons. Agronomist Moreira assessed local soils as problematic, due to poor drainage
and saturation in the wet season and excessive hardening in dry weather. Moreira also
noted problems of soil compaction due to use of tractors and harvesters on a few farms in
the settlement that utilized heavier machinery. Use of large tillers or harvesters appeared
limited to a few farmers who could afford high rental fees for farm equipment (Moreira,
2003; Rockett, 2003).
I observed farm production that varied between farms in the study area. Common
local crops and livestock included forage grasses, beans, feed corn, dryland rice,
34
sorghum, melons, tree fruits, dairy, some cattle and pork. While many farms were
evidently active, numerous parcels lied fallow and much of the landscape showed no
evidence of recent farming activity. The total land area involved in farm production at
the time in the Conquista settlement was not determined.
Water supply was plentiful across the region during the exceptionally wet season
of early 2003. Many settlement homesteads had artesian wells. Small ponds, springs,
and a few small irrigation canals were observed in the settlement area. Large-scale
mechanized irrigation systems were not seen. On some farms small-scale irrigation
systems fed from duck ponds were used on one to two-hectare fields.
Parts of the study area suffer environmental impacts from a local open-pit coal
mining operation. Coal extracted there supplies a coal-fired power plant located near the
town of Candiota. At the quarry location, extensive erosion was observed and creeks
flowing downhill to some farms were visibly contaminated with oily effluents. Local
extension workers were uncertain about the impacts of mine contaminants on the local
watershed and farmland. One farmer complained of respiratory problems, which he
blamed on emissions from the power plant’s smokestacks (Agent M, 2003; Farmer J,
2003). Although the impacts of the coal quarry and power plant on crops and livestock
had not been studied, it was evident that water from streams near the quarry would be
questionable for use in crop irrigation.
Most farmhouses at Conquista da Fronteira are simple two or three-room woodframe houses with tin roofs. Some homes appeared to be built precariously; only a few
were of a stronger brick or frame construction. Many, if not most, homesteads have
access to electricity and basic appliances. Most farmhouses stand in open fields far from
35
neighbors and exposed to wind; a few were surrounded by shade and fruit trees.
Windbreaks of non-native eucalyptus and acacia species bordered some pastures and
cultivated fields. Most farms had simple livestock pens, small rustic barns and sheds.
With few exceptions, home vegetable gardens were rarely observed at homesteads. In
sum, from my observations and discussions, family farms at the settlement of Conquista
da Fronteira showed uneven patterns of activity and reflected a fairly low farm income.
Another local settlement called Coptil was founded by M.S.T. farmers in 1990,
located 8 kilometers from Conquista da Fronteira. It has remained small, with
approximately 40 families. At Coptil homes are laid out in a compact clustered village
circled by groves of eucalyptus and fruit trees; homes are located about one kilometer
from farm fields. The main source of income for Coptil was from the sale of water from
a large artificial reservoir owned by the cooperative to commercial rice farms on the
lower plateau (Rockett, 2003). Coptil’s farmer cooperative was involved mainly in retail
sales of goods and farm supplies at two stores, one in the nearby town of Hulha Negra
and another small local supply store at the settlement. Both stores carried locally
processed goods such as fruit jams and a limited range of farm supplies. Surprisingly, no
supply of Bionatur seeds was available for sale at Coptil’s local store. In sum, economic
conditions in study area settlements appeared characteristic of Brazil’s low-income
family farm sector.
Local dietary customs and food consumer markets
36
From interviews and observations, few family farms in the study area maintained
home vegetable gardens for food consumption. An extension agent who had observed
dietary patterns in household diet among families at Conquista da Fronteira reported that
consumption of vegetables in local farm family’s diets was low in comparison to the
region’s urban population (Agent M, 2003).
The local cuisine is heavily based on beef, along with a few staple crops. Rice,
beans, potatoes, onions, carrots, and cabbage are the common vegetables in the local diet.
Regional varieties of watermelons and squashes are consumed occasionally. I saw little
use of leafy greens or salad vegetables in the local diet or for sale.
One retail outlet for “agroecological” produce existed in the study region at the
time, far off from the settlements. A small, outdoor street market was open one day a
week in an outlying neighborhood of the city of Bagé, 35 km from Conquista da
Fronteira. Four to six settlement families traveled to Bagé to supply this retail outlet with
high quality agroecological vegetables, cheeses, and fruit jams. I watched as about two
dozen shoppers from the local neighborhood purchase the entire stock of goods within
two hours, demonstrating potential for agroecological goods in Bagé.
Even so, it was evident that many farm families in the settlements were unfamiliar
with organic produce and green vegetables. As reported by Bionatur staff, lack of farmer
training and unfamiliarity with agroecological methods was a main constraint to
expansion of Bionatur Agroecological Seeds in the settlements.
This brings into question whether the local farmers were well prepared to take on
agroecological seed production for Bionatur. Such methods would include limited or no
use of agrichemical fertilizers and pesticides, use of natural composts and green manures,
37
intercropping, natural or biological pest controls, low-tillage methods and more. To what
extent were local farmers familiar with such methods? Interviews and observations
revealed that few local farmers had any experience in agroecological or organic farming
practices. Discussions revealed that the extension agents themselves were not fully
trained in organic seed production. Although Bionatur’s stated mission was to produce
regionally-adapted green vegetable seeds by agroecological or organic methods, adequate
extension training in such techniques was not available locally.
I submit that it may have been premature to establish a seed project to produce
green vegetable seed lines by agroecological methods at settlements where farmers were
mostly unfamiliar with such types of goods, and where few families appeared to
consumed green vegetables in the daily diet. I believe this contradictory situation was at
the root of problems the Bionatur project was experiencing at the time. Additional prior
study of farming practices, affinity for seed saving, and dietary customs in the settlements
appeared necessary for success of this project for green vegetable seed production.
For example, the nearby Coptil settlement had few functional ties to Bionatur
Seeds or the Cooperal cooperative. At the time, farmers at Coptil did not produce seeds
for Bionatur. Coptil’s supply store carried vegetable seed supplies from regional
agribusiness companies Top-Seed and Isla; no seed from Bionatur was sold there. At the
small settlement of Jaguarão near Candiota one farm out of 15 produced seed for
Bionatur in 2002 (Rockett, 2003; Farmer J, 2003). I submit that after six years in
operation, neither Bionatur’s strategy for vegetable seed production, nor the project’s
introduction of agroecological farming practices had gained broader acceptance and
adoption among local settlement farmers.
38
Commercial seed production by Cooperal and the founding of Bionatur
A look at prior seed production activities in the study area helps illustrate why
Bionatur was established. The Cooperal Regional Production Cooperative was founded
in July of 1992 at Conquista da Fronteira by recently-settled M.S.T. farmers. It was
spearheaded by M.S.T. national-level strategy to organize farm production and services
around regional cooperatives. The cooperative began with 450 farmers; by 2003 it had
doubled membership to 900 member-families (Manager P, 2003; Harnecker, 2002).
At its founding, Cooperal’s goals were to connect local farmers in a regional
centralized cooperative, to more easily acquire financial credit, to organize dairy
production and distribution, to expand technical extension and training and to build
harvest storage facilities. Seed production was not initially envisioned by Cooperal’s
coordinators.
In 1993 three mid-sized commercial seed companies, Top Seed, Feltrin, and
Isla 12 , approached Cooperal to recruit farmers to produce conventional hybrid vegetable
seeds. For about two years up to 250 Cooperal-affiliated farmers produced seed for those
companies, each under individual contract. However, after two years the seed companies
began to cancel most contracts; by 1995 less than 50 Cooperal farmers produced seed for
them (Cooperal, 2002; Rockett, 2003).
Why those contracts were cancelled is relevant. A Cooperal document states that
farmers were unsatisfied with contract arrangements that provided low earnings, required
production of hybrid seed using agrochemical inputs, and allowed seed companies to
12
Isla accounted for 60% of regional seed production at the time (Cooperal, 2002).
39
exclude farmers at will. In response, Cooperal farmers began to discuss establishing their
own cooperative-owned seed company (Cooperal, 2002).
In 1997 Cooperal founded Bionatur Agroecological Seeds. Initially, Bionatur
produced seed lines for a few staple seed crops, mainly favored regional bean, onion and
carrot varieties. The region is important in Brazil’s carrot seed production due to the
ideal temperate climate. Two storage warehouses were built at Conquista da Fronteira,
and second-hand seed processing machinery was acquired. By 2003 Cooperal was
coordinated farm production in local settlements, including dairy, and its affiliate
Bionatur Seeds coordinated vegetable seed production and sales (Rockett, 2003; Manager
P, 2003).
In the following section I present in more detail the work and trajectory of
Bionatur Agroecological Seeds, the main case study, with review of outcomes through
2003.
Case Study: Bionatur Agroecological Seeds
Bionatur’s founding and early trajectory
Bionatur Agroecological Seeds began in 1997 as a seed reproduction project of
the Cooperal Cooperative. Bionatur was founded by Cooperal with advisory support
from M.S.T. agronomist Ciro Correa and João Rockett, a local independent organic
40
farmer and seed saver. Bionatur began its work in 1997 with 12 selected farmers who
were contracted to produce seed of regional varieties of bean, carrot and onion.
Mr. Rockett was Bionatur’s first operations coordinator. He is an experienced
organic farmer and expert in seed saving and permaculture who began to farm near Bagé
during the countercultural “back to the land” movement in the late 1970s that attracted
many young Brazilians to intentional rural communities. Rockett has saved and
reproduced native varieties of bean and maize seed since the early 1980s. He is not an
M.S.T.-affiliated farmer, but rather an allied supporter of the movement. Currently,
Rockett coordinates the Pampas Permaculture Research Center at his small farm on the
outskirts of Bagé (Rockett, 2003).
In February 2003, Rockett provided me a firsthand account of Bionatur’s early
history. During the early 1990s, he often visited the Conquista da Fronteira settlement,
where he knew many Cooperal farmers. He knew that some saved seeds, but that almost
no one there used organic methods. As Cooperal’s seed producers lost contracts with
private seed companies, he recognized a need for alternative sources of seed. In early
1995 Mr. Rockett met with agronomist Ciro Correa who encouraged him to develop a
plan for organic seed production at local settlements. Rockett drafted a plan and
presented it at a meeting of 25 regional Cooperal cooperative members in late 1996.
They agreed to establish Bionatur as a cooperative-owned agroecological seed
reproduction project, owned by Cooperal and provided with support by state-level M.S.T.
coordination and extension branches.
In early 1997 Rockett interviewed a number of farmers and contracted with
twelve to produce seed for Bionatur. He was hired as Bionatur’s operations coordinator
41
and held the position until 1999 (Rockett, 2003; Cooperal, 2002).
Bionatur seed production in its first two years involved staple varieties of carrot,
maize, onion, and bean seed. Rockett reported very good results for the first two years:
rainfall amounts were ideal, and germination rates and yields were high. He reported that
seed stocks were full at the time 13 . As more farmers became involved in producing seed
for Bionatur, Cooperal invested in machinery and packaging materials and built two
warehouses for seed processing and storage.
In 1999 the Cooperal cooperative acquired second-hand seed processing
machinery, including two gravity tables to clean seeds. With funding from state
agencies, the firm developed capacity for seed processing, storage, packaging, and sales.
Grants and credit lines were obtained from two state-government farm development
projects, Lumiar and PROCERA (Rockett, 2003).
In its first two years Bionatur’s seed lots expanded and farmer participation
increased somewhat, but differences in strategic approach began to emerge. Cooperal
managers sought to expand the number of participating farmers, and diversify seed lines
for market sales. However, Bionatur was a new, very small startup company with an
unusual product line of “agroecological” vegetable seeds. It had a minimal staff, few
participating farmers, and thus little capacity to successfully enter the regional vegetable
seed market. Technical extension and training in organic or agroecological methods for
Bionatur seed producers were limited.
Mr. Rockett wished to work closely with a few well-trained farmers to establish a
seed conservation bank to collect and conserve native crop varieties, as well as to carry
out field trials and expand technical training for farmers. However, this did not occur.
13
Published seed harvest yields and sales figures were not available for 1997 to 1999.
42
After two years as manager, Rockett felt overextended as operations manager, fundraiser
and liaison; this led to his departure from Bionatur in 1999 (Rockett, 2003).
Later, M.S.T. agronomist and farmer Manager P was hired Bionatur’s
coordinator. In 2002 the M.S.T.-affiliated farm extension agency COPITEC began to
work with local farmers, including seed producers (Rockett, 2003; Cooperal 2002).
From 1999 to 2002 Bionatur’s farmers produced a total of 15 metric tons of staple
crop seeds. Later, the company largely abandoned staple seed production and reoriented
seed lines toward green vegetables, including regional varieties of squash, onion, carrot,
melon, beans, greens and cabbage, all grown organically and destined for sale to small
farmers and home gardeners in southern Brazil (see Table 3C).
Bionatur’s processing and storage facilities were located at the Cooperal
Cooperative at Conquista da Fronteira inside two large, high-ceilinged brick warehouses,
each about 1,600 m2. The main warehouse contained a seed thresher and two gravity
tables used to clean small-sized seeds such as of carrot. I observed that the machinery
appeared quite worn, but functional. The larger gravity machine was seen in operation
cleaning several bags of carrot seed. At the time the limited remaining stock of Bionatur
seed was stored at a warehouse at the time; this consisted of about a dozen 15-kilo sacks
of carrot seed, and perhaps 200 to 300 kilos of onion seed bulbs.
In promotional material Bionatur is described as, “the first agroecological seed
company in Latin America”. In 2003, Bionatur seed products included about 40 openpollinated horticultural seed varieties, all produced using agroecological methods, i.e.,
without use of chemical fertilizers, herbicide or pesticides. To clarify terms, although
occasional references to “organic seed” are made in company documents, as of 2003
43
Bionatur’s seed products were not legally certified or labeled organic. Bionatur seed lots
go through the Rio Grande do Sul Department of Agriculture testing for quality control
and certification for germination rates, but are not certified as organic (Bionatur 2003).
In 2003 the cost of all single Bionatur vegetable seed packets at retail level was
uniform for all varieties at R$1, or about US$ 0.30 (Manager P, 2003). No information
was provided by Bionatur on project revenues from seed sales.
Bionatur Seeds promoted an agroecological approach to producing vegetable
seed. This required training and credit assistance for farmers to transition to organic or
low-input production methods, including chemical-free fertilization and use of biological
pest and disease controls. Proponents of this approach included Mr. Rockett, Mr. Correa,
and agronomist Dr. Sebastião Pinheiro, a former agricultural chemist from the University
of Rio Grande do Sul who has written extensively on the health risks of agrichemicals in
Brazil’s agriculture. He joined Rockett as an outside consultant in the project’s initial
stages. The difficulties of such a transition soon became evident (Pinheiro, 2001;
Rockett, 2003).
Bionatur: seed production data, 1997 to 2001
Data on seed yields were made available by Bionatur for three years: 1999, 2000,
and 2001. Seed yields for 24 vegetable varieties produced by Bionatur during those years
are shown in Table 3C. Data on seed yields for 2002 and 2003 were not provided, which
may be due to substantial drop in yields in those years. No information on Bionatur
annual seed sales and revenues was provided, which are assumed to have been low for
44
2002 and 2003, from information gathered. Farmers’ earnings from seed production are
estimated later in this chapter.
From all evidence, Bionatur had entered a niche in Brazil’s horticultural seed
market but evidently lacked the production and marketing capacity to compete in
commercial regional seed markets.
Table 3B: Bionatur seed harvest yields, 1999 to 2001, by volume (kg.)
(source: Bionatur, 2003)*
Seed Variety
Carrot, Brasilia
Cilantro
Onion, Crioula
Onion, Norte
Onion,Baia Periforme
Onion, Primavera
Onion, Madrugada
Squash, Menina
Squash, Sul Mineiro
Squash, Tronco
Squash, Caserta
Watermelon, Crimson
Melon, Carvalho
Melon, Gaucho
Okra, Santa Cruz
Strawberry, Coroa
Mustard, Lisa
Pea
Mustard, Crespa
Watermelon, Congo
Watermelon, Charleston
Cucumber, Caipira
Arrugula
Radish
Total seed production
1999
3,000
2,000
300
150
415
n/a
n/a
91
80
n/a
150
150
80
75
300
130
100
85
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
7,106 kg.
2000
2,000
n/a
270
200
50
n/a
n/a
81
n/a
26
79
25
48
70
n/a
n/a
n/a
26
106
10
23
88
62
12
3,176 kg.
2001
500
1,000
n/a
n/a
n/a
600
800
200
200
100
100
100
100
120
400
150
80
100
25
40
50
25
20
10
4,720 kg.
*(n/a: not available)
From 2000 through 2002 Bionatur’s seed sales were directed to family farm
45
associations and home gardeners outside of the region. Eighty percent of Bionatur’s seed
sales were to small farmers’ associations not associated with M.S.T. settlements (Correa,
2003). Bionatur’s capacity for market outreach appeared very limited. The lack of a
printed catalog or a sales oriented website was surprising for a market based project.
The sharp reduction in seed stocks during the 2001 and 2002 seasons was a
serious setback for Bionatur. Seed stocks for most varieties were very limited during that
period, with many varieties having been entirely depleted. One exception was carrot
seed, which averaged exceptionally high yields but showed little market demand. The
supply of onion seed, a higher value crop, was critically low in 1999 and 2000. In sum,
sales of Bionatur seed were almost at a standstill in February 2003 according to its
coordinators (Correa, 2003; Manager P, 2003). Public distribution of 10,000 Bionatur
seed packets I had witnessed a few weeks earlier at the World Social Forum Low may
reflect the project’s low marketing capacity (see Chapter Two).
The high cost of packaging materials was identified as an ongoing problem for
Bionatur. Manager P stated that the cost of Bionatur retail seed packing envelopes
represented 30% of total product costs because each packet label included a costly
photocopy of the product. A large stock of costly aluminum packaging for wholesale
turned out to be excessively large and inadequate (Manager P, 2003).
Farm income from seed production
From 1997 to 2003, small numbers of farmers Conquista da Fronteira and other
local settlements were involved in producing vegetable seed for Bionatur. According to
46
company figures, 56 farms in the region were under contract in 2002, out of a total of
approximately 1,200 active family farms. Data on seed yields and earnings per farm
were not available. Total number of local farms producing seed under contract to
Bionatur from 1997 to 2002 is shown in Table 3D; total field area planted in Bionatur
production and average area per farm in seed production are shown in Tables 3E and 3F.
Data in Tables 3D, 3E and 3F show relevant trends between 1997 and 2002. The
number of farmers producing seed and total area planted for Bionatur Seeds was
relatively small compared to the total number of farms in the settlements (about 1,200).
The number of seed producers increased. The total area planted for seed production also
increased, but this figure represented only a small parcel of land per farm.
TABLE 3C: Number of local farms producing seed for Bionatur, 1997 to 2002
(Source: Bionatur, 2003)
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
12
30
30
36
42
56
TABLE 3D: Total area in Bionatur seed production, hectares, 1997-2002
(Source: Bionatur, 2003)
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
7
11
11
16
48
95
TABLE 3E: Average area planted per farm for Bionatur seed, hectares, 1997-2002
(Source: Bionatur, 2003)
47
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
0.5 to 0.6
0.3 to 0.4
0.3 to 0.4
0.5 to 0.5
1.0 to 1.5
1.5 to 2.0
From a document provided by Bionatur the price per kilogram paid to local
farmers for different seed varieties was established as follows: two seed crops brought in
higher payments: tomato seeds paid R$35 per kilogram, and R$ 30 per kilogram was paid
for sweet pepper seed. In a medium range, onion seed paid between R$ 18/kg and
R$15/kg. Thirty other varieties, including several brassica and cucurbit varieties, carrot,
melons, cucumber, spinach, lettuce, radish parsley, and arrugula seed paid farmers
between R$ 10/kg and R$ 5/kg. A few more varieties paid farmers under R$5/kg.,
including lentils, sunflowers, fava beans, peas, cilantro, and okra 14 (see Appendix C).
It is clear from the figures that a large quantity of seed of any variety would have
to be produced per farm to produce cost-effective earnings. The seed produced would
have to be sold on a season basis to sustain earnings.
Family farms in the study region are in the lowest income sub-segment of the
state’s family-farm sector. Figures for average annual net revenue per local farm were
not available; extension agents roughly estimated average yearly net earnings per farm at
between R$ 2,400 and RS$ 3,600 15 (Agent M, 2003; Sosa, 2003).
Technical support, financing and project reassessment
14
15
Approximate currency exchange rate in 2003: US$ 1= R$ 3.3
US$ 800 to US$ 1,200
48
In February 2003, Bionatur was administered by a team of five people. Bionatur
Manager P is an agronomist trained at the regional farm extension college who settled
with his family at the nearby settlement of Coptil before moving to Candiota (Manager P
2003). In early 2003, Manager P ran Bionatur from its main office in Candiota. His
tasks included selection of seed varieties, allocation and management of contracts with
seed producers, coordination of extension services, and wholesale and retail seed sales.
Alongside Manager P, Bionatur’s office personnel included a sales representative, a
bookkeeper, an office assistant and a receptionist. Sales and marketing activity were at a
minimum at that time due to nearly depleted seed stocks and lack of marketing capacity.
Agronomist Ciro Correa of the M.S.T.’s National Production Sector co-founded
Bionatur and has provided strategic coordination and outreach throughout the project’s
trajectory. Mr. Correa is coordinator of seed projects for the M.S.T. at national and
international levels. In 2003 Mr. Correa lived in Brasília, but communicated often with
Bionatur’s on-site coordinators in Rio Grande do Sul. Mr. Correa is a proponent of
Bionatur’s expansion into a national-scale M.S.T. seed network (Correa, 2003).
In 2003, a small team of extension agents from three extension agencies worked
alongside local farmers. About eight extension agents were with COPTEC 16 , a regional
farm extension organization. The agents (técnicos, as they call themselves), were young
highly dedicated agronomists of different backgrounds. Each agent took on extension
services for a specific production line; some worked with dairy farmers and others with
seed, pork, grain, and honey producers. At the time of my research, two COPTEC agents
worked exclusively with seed producers (Agent M, 2003).
16
COPTEC: Field Technicians Cooperative (Cooperativa de Técnicos de Campo).
49
CETAP is another extension team that promotes family farming and sustainable
agriculture at several locations around the state. At the time it had two extension agents
working with Bionatur. The French rural development organization CICDA provided
planning and funding for Bionatur through an extension agent in the region. Each
extension agent offered interesting perspectives in interviews and discussions 17 .
All Bionatur staff and technicians highlighted an urgent need to improve training
resources and basic adult education in the settlements. Bionatur staff qualified the
education level of many local farmers as limited, with only a small minority having
completed secondary school education.
In.early 2003 Bionatur lacked technical manuals and training materials on seed
production and agroecological farming. Farmer training in organic vegetable and seed
production, non-chemical fertilization and integrated pest management was minimal
(Agent M, 2003; COPTEC, 2003). Manuals on agroecology and alternative agriculture
that were recently published in Brazil were not available on site. This shortage of
technical resources was surprising.
From the start, Bionatur staff discussed the urgent need for improved technical
training. In the face of such impediments COPTEC and CETAP farm extension agents
were eager to discuss these problems and find solutions. Their work included initial
efforts to elaborate a technical manual for local organic seed producers. Occasional
workshops on organic composting and pest control techniques were offered, but not well
attended. Agents worked with a few local farmers to improve soil tilth by using cover
crops and low-till practices (Agent M; COPTEC, 2003; CICDA, 2003).
17
CETAP: Center for Popular Alternative technology (Centro de Tecnologias Alternativas Populares);
CICDA: Centre Internacional de Cooperation pour le Developpement Agricole.
50
Some staff members supported establishment of a model organic farm, along the
lines of M.S.T. farm extension training schools that exist in other parts of Brazil. By
2004 a new adult vocational training school had opened at Conquista da Fronteira. It was
not known whether the new school’s courses included agroecological farming or seed
production methods (Manager P, 2003; Lavender, 2005).
From local reports Bionatur carried out few seed field trials between 1996 and 2003,
aside from germination tests. Mr. Rockett called for a participatory research approach
based on organized groups of farmers visiting regional model farms and carrying out
organic seed production trials, but this remained unfulfilled (Rockett, 2003).
Bionatur received limited financial support from the state-level M.S.T. and from
state government development agencies. Initially, the project received start-up grants and
additional funds from the PROCERA division of the state Department of Agriculture, but
those funding sources had ended by 2002 (Cooperal, 2002). State-level M.S.T.
coordination had provided some credit to Bionatur but this funding was reportedly not
consistent (Manager P 2003; Agent M, 2003).
From company documents, total investment in Bionatur in its first six years was
about US$80,000. Capital improvement expenses included construction of two
warehouses and purchase of seed processing machinery and packaging materials. Much
of the firm’s expenses were payments to farmers for seed produced (Manager P, 2003).
For an aspiring commercial enterprise, the low level of capital investment clearly
impeded the implementation of key plans.
In January 2003, I met with Bionatur coordinators and representatives of U.S.
charitable foundations who attended the World Social Forum and had expressed interest
51
in extending grants or loans to finance Bionatur. The foundations raised doubts regarding
Binatur’s lack of a well-defined business plan. They not understand whether it was a
commercial enterprise, or a non-profit, or both. Final results of those negotiations are
not known, but evidently outside funding was not provided at that time.
Importantly, Bionatur’s strategy after 2000 appeared to have been redirected
toward entry into the commercial seed market, rather than to improving local farmers’
access to seeds. Wholesale and retail seed sales were aimed to associations of family
farmers and home gardeners across the state, but not to local settlement farmers.
Evidently, this commercial approach was in response to demand for seed from more
prosperous family farmers and home gardeners in northern RS and Cooperal’s desire for
income from market sales.
At the time of my field research, it was evident that Bionatur was experiencing
serious setbacks. In 2001 and 2002 a drastic drop in Bionatur’s seed yields due to
extremely rainy weather conditions; the project suffered. Additional constraints on the
project were the high cost of packaging, a low level of capital investment and a lack of
technical training (Manager P, 2003; Correa, 2003; Agent M, 2003).
In interviews in January 2003, project coordinators were forthright in admitting
that Bionatur was in crisis mode and suffering from depleted seed stocks, low farmer
participation, lack of technical training and funding and climatic stress (Manager P, 2003;
Correa, 2003). I attended production planning meetings in February 2003 in Candiota
during which Bionatur staff allocated seed varieties and acreage per crop to be sowed for
the following season’s seed production; local farmers were not present at this meeting
(see tables 3D and 3E).
52
Another problem was limited mobility of farmers and extension agents between
settlements. Transportation to markets and farms was difficult in rainy season. Bionatur
staff and extension agents living Candiota needed to travel about 25 km to Cooperal’s
facilities and settlement farms. Bionatur staff used two old, dilapidated Volkswagen
vehicles and two dirt motorcycles for travel; the vehicles were shared and in poor
condition. At the time, a lead COPTEC technician and a visiting journalist were injured
in a motorcycle accident on their way to a settlement. The difficulties of travel between
farms and settlements seemed an impediment to the project’s extension services.
Facing a set of critical problems, in February of 2003 Cooperal Bionatur staff
began to carry out field assessment surveys in an effort to reinforce the project. Agents
cited an ongoing problem of lack of accurate data on Bionatur’s performance, due to
Bionatur’s limited personnel and low capacity for project monitoring and documentation.
In February 2003 Bionatur hired agronomist Vladimir Moreira to carry out a Rapid
Participatory Diagnostic survey of Bionatur farmers and field conditions at Conquista da
Fronteira and other settlements; this was the first such survey in the area. I obtained an
initial version of the survey report in which Mr. Moreira noted the limited interest of
farmers in working with Bionatur Seed, as well as the difficult local soil conditions
(Agent M, 2003; Moreira, 2003; Sosa, 2003).
Local introduction of organic and agroecological farming
Bionatur seed products are labeled as “agroecological” and are produced without
use of synthetic agrichemicals. Farmers utilize non-chemical inputs such as organic
compost and green manures to improve soil fertility. Natural phosphate is sometimes
53
added at rates of 200 to 250 kilograms per hectare 18 . An agroecological mineral additive
called MB4 is also utilized; its exact composition was undetermined. Liquid biofertilizer is made on some farms from cattle, pork, chicken, turkey, and duck manure.
Application of organic bio-fertilizer was observed, in which a farmer used a small,
generator-powered backpack sprayer to fertilize a half hectare field of intercropped
watermelon/ dryland rice and two hectares of maize and beans with liquid manure
extracted from a small duck pond (Farmer J, 2003).
Organic fertilizers and composts are not commonly used by local farmers.
Attempts by extension agents to introduce such techniques were taking place in 2003. A
worm-bin composting operation was built at the local beef processing plant, where a mix
of cow manure and leaf liter was used as the growing medium. Two compost bins there
were simple brick enclosures, 15 m long x 1.5 m wide x 0.5 m high, covered with black
plastic and hosting a healthy population of earthworms. A small supply of packaged
cured compost was in storage, roughly estimated at 30 kg. Whether this fertilizer could
be classified as organic is uncertain. This small-scale composting experiment utilized
inexpensive, easily available materials and could potentially serve as a model for
introducing worm-composting techniques to local farmers. However, the plant manager
complained that the compost project had been neglected. He urged that Bionatur
maintain the composting operation or it would be closed. Overall, little use of organic
composting was observed locally and technicians were frank about its lack of appeal to
local farmers, who often found it easier to use agichemicals. Only six local farms had
worm-bin composting facilities in 2003 (Manager P, 2003).
18
Local price of natural phosphate is about R$ 25 per 20 kg. (Extension agent M, 2003).
54
Non-synthetic pest and disease controls were used by some settlement farmers.
These included calda bordalesa (“Bordeaux broth”) a diluted mix of copper sulfate and
lime (calcium carbonate) used as a fungicide and insect repellant applied on some seed
crops every two weeks, especially onion fields. A mix of cinnamon and garlic was
another natural insect repellant reportedly used by a few farmers (Manager P, 2003
Competing options: vegetable seeds, staple foods, dairy and forage crops
Local farmers’ independence and self-direction in making production choices was
made evident in an interview that took place with “Farmer J”, a 53 year-old with a family
of seven, and a veteran of early M.S.T. land occupations. In 2003, he had planted only
six out of an available nine arable hectares; the rest of his land was broken by a steep
ravine. Farmer J’s farm was an interesting example of diversified, small-scale organic
farming. He originally had farmed conventionally. In an often emotional testimony, he
told me of reaching a financial crisis a few years after settlement, in part due to high costs
of farm supplies. He was near to abandoning the farm altogether when he learned about
organic methods being introduced locally by Bionatur. Soon he diversified his
production lines, adopted intercropping methods and began to fertilize with green
manures. Farmer J expressed great pride in his family’s self-reliance, good diet and
growing prosperity, and he attributed his good fortune to his change of farming methods.
However, he said that none of his neighbors had adopted organic farming, which they
considered to be untested and risky. Farmer J sold seeds to both Bionatur and to private
companies, and retailed produce directly to consumers. His production choices were
55
based on his assessment of market conditions and his adoption of organic farming. His
approach was clearly an exception in his settlement (Farmer J, 2003; Sosa, 2003).
In my observation, I noticed that many fields at Conquista da Fronteira were
either sowed in pasture for dairy production or fallow. I also observed large fields, 10 ha
or larger, of pastures planted in the preferred forage crop of local dairy farmers, known as
cornichão (Lotus corniflora); this seed crop was not organic, nor was it being sold
through Bionatur (Rockett, 2003; CICDA, 2003).
I visited Farmer L, who was busy with weighing and selling a large lot of
cornichão seed to two wholesale seed buyers. A large rented harvester sat next to his
simple wood-frame house. It was reported that Farmer L may have spent a third of his
gross earnings from seed on rental of the harvester. Even so, he could earn a profit from
the cornichão seed harvest, due to the high demand and a good price. Farmer L had
produced seed for Bionatur in the past, but at that point was independently selling
conventionally-produced forage seed (Rockett, 2003; CICDA, 2003).
From local reports, many farmers at the Conquista da Fronteira settlement had
opted for dairy production, which was sold mainly to a large regional dairy processing
plant owned by the Italian transnational Parmalat. Farmers’ option to produce dairy
and/or forage crops likely precluded production of vegetables, staple grains or seeds.
This is likely due to higher earnings and lower labor requirements for dairy, as well as to
limited land and labor per farm (Rockett, 2003; CICDA, 2003).
Many small farms at Conquista da Fronteira exclusively produced dairy. Data
provided for 2002 showed that 210 farms at Conquista da Fronteira and 158 at other
nearby settlements were producing dairy (Cooperal, 2002). A Cooperal report from 2002
56
states that, “dairy production has allowed the permanence and economic viability of farm
families and of Cooperal’s markets” (Cooperal, 2002).
Stakeholders in Bionatur expressed divided opinions regarding the local emphasis
on dairy production. Both Mr. Rockett and local Farmer A deplored the lack of interest
of many farmers in diversifying production for vegetable, seeds and grain crops. As
Farmer A complained, “all they do is buy a few cows, put out their milk containers at the
side of the road (for collection), and sit back the rest of the day. They have no motivation
to produce vegetables, either for their own table or for market (Rockett, 2003; Farmer A,
2003)”. Bionatur and CETAP extension agents also noted a predominance of dairy
production and worried about local farmers’ dependency on the transnational Parmalat.
At the time, some farmers in Conquista da Fronteira produced fruit products for
local sale, such as canned peach and plum preserves. Others focused on staple grains and
small-scale pork production. However, several landholdings at the settlement were idle
due to lack of available labor, and some local settlers were apparently finding
employment in nearby towns (Manager P, 2003).
In sum, it was clear that in 2003 Bionatur Agricultural Seeds was confronting a
difficult set of problems that was putting in doubt its future, either as a native seed
conservation project or a vegetable seed company. Following my field study of Bionatur,
the next step in my research was to learn what I could about other native seed projects in
different regions of Brazil.
*
*
*
*
Chapter Four
The SINTRAF Cooperative’s native maize conservation and
57
the Agreste region’s community seed banks
Native seed conservation projects often envision a distinct set of goals at their
outset, and such objectives are often modified and adapted over time to meet changing
local needs. Complex factors related to extant environmental and economic conditions
and to the socio-cultural setting can influence outcomes and how peasant small farmers
might participate in community-based native seed conservation projects.
Following my study of Bionatur Seeds in Rio Grande do Sul, I turned my
attention toward two native seed initiatives in two other regions of Brazil. These were a
native maize seed conservation project by SINTRAF, a small-farmers cooperative in
Anchieta, Santa Catarina state, and a network of peasant community seed banks
established in Paraíba state. These two projects appeared somewhat comparable in scale
and demographics to Bionatur, but differed in their strategies, history and outcomes.
Both projects were closely supported by the Brazilian non-governmental rural
development association AS-PTA 19 . I studied those native seed projects as a basis for
comparison, in order to better understand seed saving initiatives in peasant communities,
and to find effective approaches to their design and implementation.
Native maize seed conservation by the SINTRAF Cooperative
in Anchieta, Santa Catarina state
SINTRAF is a regional small farmers’ cooperative is affiliated with the
19
AS-PTA: Assessment and Services for Appropriate Technologies, (translated from the Portuguese).
58
Movement of Small Farmers 20 , located near the town of Anchieta in western region of
Santa Catarina state. According to author Adriano Canci, many small farmers in western
Santa Catarina region have traditionally practiced crossbreeding of maize and have saved
favored lines of regional heirloom or native (crioulo) maize 21 . The term “crioulo” is a
colloquial term widely used in Brazil for diverse types of heirloom seed types, native
crop varieties and livestock produced by traditional small farmers (Canci, 2002).
In 1996 a group of members of the SINTRAF cooperative became involved in
breeding, saving and selling traditional maize varieties (Zea mays L.). The cooperative’s
farmers made an organized effort to identify and reproduce well-known native maize
lines, utilizing as much seed as needed for seasonal harvest, and commercializing the
surplus through the Cooperative. At the time, some SINTRAF farmers began to produce
crioulo maize by organic methods; 170 hectares were produced organically in the region
for the 2002 harvest (Canci, 2002: 64).
The conservation of crioulo maize seed lines by the SINTRAF cooperative began
as a local grassroots effort to rescue the disappearing traditional maize seed lines of the
Anchieta region. The initiative was an effort of an association of small farmers to revive
and promote traditional crop breeding and seed saving practices maintained by some
family farmers. According to Canci, certain rare varieties of crioulo maize are produced
only at one or two farms in the region (Canci, 2002).
The native maize project began slowly. Long-term discussions began in 1986
between local SINTRAF farmers and agricultural extension organizations about the need
to involve local farmers in conserving native maize lines. Following five years of
20
21
In Portuguese: Movimento dos Pequenos Agricultores (MPA).
In Portuguese: milho crioulo.
59
discussion and planning, the first regional “maize network” was established in 1991 as a
temporary regional pilot project to conserve traditional maize varieties, with technical
and financial support from the farm extension organization AS-PTA. This first initiative
inspired more local farmers to identify and reproduce more varieties of crioulo maize
within the network, and soon numerous farmers from six regional municipalities joined in
the SINTRAF/ AS-PTA native maize network.
In 1992 to 1993, the native maize network carried out comparative field trials of
49 varieties of native crioulo maize, as well as some commercial hybrid varieties. Test
data collected in the trials showed that yields of crioulo maize varieties compared very
favorably with commercial hybrid lines. Of the top ten highest yielding maize varieties
four were of crioulo maize. The second-highest yield of the tested maize varieties was
obtained from a crioulo line called “bico de ouro” (golden beak), which yielded 6,600
kilograms per hectare. Although the initial AS-PTA maize network had a fairly short
trajectory over two years, the project generated so much interest and demand among local
farmers that in 1997 the SINTRAF cooperative initiated a follow-up program of crioulo
maize conservation (Canci, 2002).
In its first two years, the SINTRAF maize network planted both commercially
improved lines and crioulo varieties. This approach was directed toward a specific
objective, which was to attract broader farmer participation by balancing economic needs
with the rescue of traditional maize. SINTRAF managers saw no contradiction in
working with both heirloom and improved maize varieties, under the condition that fields
of native maize were well isolated from commercial varieties to avoid cross-pollination.
The main goal was to restore the genetic base of the cultivar by conserving heirloom seed
60
lines and finding compatible new crosses. Seven crioulo maize varieties were produced
in the 1998 season harvest. By 2002, the number of heirloom maize varieties had
increased to 33 lines (Canci, 2002).
The number of SINTRAF farmers who reproduced native maize increased
steadily over the network’s first six years. By 2001, about half of the family farms in
Anchieta municipality, 539 farms of approximately 1,100, produced crioulo maize and
many without use of agrichemicals. Through this growing effort, SINTAF farmers
evidently became self-sufficient in maize seed supplies. According to Canci, 95 % of
maize planted in the 2002 season was produced locally in the previous harvest. Between
1996 and 2001, the cooperative planted over 4,000 hectares in maize, which yielded over
100 metric tons of native maize seed for regional sale and distribution (Canci, 2002).
This seed project involved much discussion, field trials, training and outreach to
expand farmer participation. From the beginning SINTRAF farmers actively discussed
key issues including criteria for selection of crioulo maize varieties versus use of
improved crosses, isolation of heirloom varieties in the field, introduction of organic
farming practices, and the rescue of traditional crop knowledge and culinary traditions.
It is important to note how the choice of varieties was open to discussion. Many
local farmers were comfortable using improved commercial maize crosses, which have
high yields, shorter plant height and tighter grain than crioulo varieties. However, other
farmers favored particular characteristics of crioulo maize, such as higher grain weight,
higher protein content, and a particular flavor, color or appearance. SINTRAF farmers
planted both crioulo and improved lines, and practiced careful crossbreeding. The purity
of crioulo maize lines was maintained by a minimum isolation distance of 400 meters
61
between fields. Under ideal conditions, yields for some crioulo maize varieties
compared favorably with many commercial varieties. A field trial conducted by
SINTRAF in 2001 measured the volume of crioulo maize seed harvested per hectare.
One one-hectare field trial yielded 4,800 kilograms of maize. From this harvest, after
cleaning 1,776 kilograms of viable maize seed were obtained (Canci, 2002: 90).
The effort to recruit and train farmers in the SINTRAF maize network is
noteworthy. Between 1997 and 2002 local farmers were offered at least seven courses in
seed reproduction and organic practices, and frequent meetings were held to discuss the
network’s progress. These meetings were reportedly well attended, sometimes by
upwards of 200 farmers (Canci, 2002).
It appears evident that the SINTRAF crioulo maize project engendered much
interest and active participation in native maize across Santa Catarina state and the wider
region. In May 2000, SINTRAF co-sponsored the First State Annual Festival of Crioulo
Maize in Anchieta, with participation of numerous regional farmers associations, several
non-governmental organizations and local, state and federal agencies. This event was
followed by the First National Festival of Crioulo Maize, also at Anchieta, in April 2002.
In sum, over a period of five or six years the SINTRAF native maize project
allowed many farmers in western Santa Catarina state to become stewards of native
maize biodiversity. Regional seed exchanges became an avenue toward improved access
to seed. Some key elements of this project’s approach included participative long-term
planning by a well supported consortium of small farmers and allied organizations; active
interest, support and participation of local farmers; and equal attention to conserving
traditional crop varieties and meeting existing economic needs.
62
Peasant community seed banks in the Agreste region of Paraíba
In the 1990’s, an association of peasant farmers and extension organizations in the
Agreste region of the northeastern state of Paraíba established a network of community
seed banks to save and distribute seeds of traditional and regional legumes, maize, and
tuber cultivars. As in the SINTRAF maize project, this project was technically supported
by the national farm extension organization AS-PTA.
The Paraíba seed banks operated as multiple non-commercial community seed
exchanges for local peasant farmers in many communities. In this system farmers could
borrow lots of seed to sow from the local seed bank, which were returned in kind to the
bank from the following harvest. This approach motivated many peasant small farmers
to seasonally reproduce diverse seed lines, portions of which were destined to supply
community seed stocks. Specific rules of seed exchange and participation were defined
by each local seed bank’s membership. In any given year local farmers could choose to
participate or not (Almeida and Cordeiro, 1999).
The setting of this project is ecologically and economically different than for the
Bionatur and SINTRAF seed initiatives. Located in Brazil’s impoverished northeastern
region, Paraíba state is narrow and long, extending inland 443 kilometers from the
Atlantic coast to its western border; a total area of 56,372 square kilometers. Paraíba is
divided into four distinct ecological zones that divide the state along its length. The
Agreste is a semi-arid ecosystem located between the humid Atlantic Littoral coast to the
east and the dry, semi-desert Borborema and Sertão zones to the west. Precipitation
63
varies abruptly across the Agreste, creating diverse vegetation types in ecological microzones. Average rainfall ranges from 1,000 millimeters per year in the eastern region to
400 millimeters per year just 50 kilometers to the west (Almeida and Cordeiro, 1999).
Of Paraíba state’s total population of 3.2 million, 36% lives in rural zones. In the
Agreste, population density is very high, as much as 218 inhabitants per square kilometer,
and most families live on very small homesteads of less than 10 hectares (Almeida and
Cordeiro, 1999).
Two Brazilian researchers, Dr. Paula Almeida and Dr. Angela Cordeiro, studied
the peasant community seed banks in Paraíba’s Agreste. In their book Semente da
Paixão (Seed of Passion) they describe the region’s peasant farming systems and the
establishment of the Agreste community seed banks. In the impoverished Agreste land
ownership is highly concentrated. For example, in the 1990s three Agreste municipalities
studied by Almeida and Cordeiro, farms of less than 10 hectares comprised nearly 90%
of total farm establishments, yet farms larger than 100 hectares occupied 71% of
agricultural land. The demographic setting is composed of many very small, lowincome subsistence farms, along with small consumer markets located in nearby towns.
Thus, the Agreste concentrates a large number of very small family farms of less than 10
hectares, making up to half of total farms in that size category in Paraíba (Almeida and
Cordeiro, 1999). The need for affordable seed supplies for low-income peasant farms is
evident.
Over hundreds of years, persistent droughts have brought great hardship to the
Agreste region’s settlers. Difficult soils and ecological conditions in the Agreste have led
local farmers to develop seed conservation practices and adapt farming to distinct
64
microclimates. For many family farmers in this region, seed saving and intercropping
techniques are long-held traditional methods. Polycultural farming is one adaptive
response to local environmental conditions and nutritional needs. For example, a small
field might be intercropped in a combination of food staples such as manioc (cassava),
cowpeas, cilantro, and fruit trees. Others fields are planted in maize, beans, and squash
(Almeida and Cordeiro, 1999).
The early 1990s brought a resurgence of community seed banks in the Agreste.
As a response to local livelihood needs, work was directed specifically to providing
farmers with better access to seed supplies. Initial efforts were limited; at the time small
farmers’ movements in Brazil were struggling against land and market monopolization
by regional landed elites (Almeida and Cordeiro, 1999).
A new coalition of local farmer associations and syndicates was formed as a
regional project, the Appropriate Technology Network (Rede PTA), a regional group of
nine organizations working the grassroots to promote agroecological farming practices.
Later, organizational and technical assistance was provided by the national AS-PTA 22 ,
which was essential to the success of the Agreste community seed banks. The AS-PTA
joined the project in 1993 and began by conducting a participatory agro-ecosystem
diagnostic that involved 20 farmer associations and over 60 farmers. Out of this effort a
comprehensive seed production strategy was developed. AS-PTA began to mobilize
participation among different communities. By 1996, over 25 community seed banks
with 9,250 participating family farms had been established across three Northeastern
states under this project (Almeida and Cordeiro, 1999: 34; Van der Weid, 2003).
22
AS-PTA: Assessment and Services for Alternative Agriculture; also previously in the section on the
SINTRAF/ Anchieta maize seed project.
65
An emphasis on enhancing crop diversity and appropriate selection of seed types
appear to have been key factors in the growth of the Agreste seed banks. Legumes are a
main component of the traditional diet in the Agreste. In 1995, 9.8 metric tons of
common bean, cowpea, and lima bean seeds were produced by 530 local families and
distributed by 17 community seed banks across the region. By 1999, 25 community seed
banks had been established regionally, and 1,500 hectares were planted to produce seed
lines of diverse cultivars. Over the course of four years 39 metric tons of legume and
maize seeds were supplied to member-farmers by the seed banks. Other traditional
cultivars were integrated into the project. 197 families supplied 20 metric tons of yam
seed; other farmers began to produce peanut seed. Many towns in the Agreste host
weekly municipal farmers’ markets where farmers sell and buy a wide range of farm
goods including seeds.
Improved conditions for seed storage were an important aspect of the Agreste
seed project. A group of local farmers affiliated to the seed banks designed a small zinc
silo that could be built at a low cost for seed storage. By 1999, one hundred seventy-five
seed silos had been built and distributed to seed bank farms; a combined storage capacity
of 35 metric tons (Almeida and Cordeiro, 1999).
As Almeida and Cordeiro point out, seed saving has long been a traditional
practice for local farmers; the Agreste project redoubled their efforts. Data from AS-PTA
surveys showed that by 1999 the farmer-members of Agreste seed banks obtained an
average of 43% of their seed supplies from the seed banks, 33% from their own selfreproduced seed lots, and 24% from commercial purchases. Farmers who were not
associated with seed banks averaged 48% of seed stocks from self-reproduced seed and
66
52% from commercial purchases (Almeida and Cordeiro, 1999: 40). The data indicate
that commercial seed purchases may have decreased half for member-farmers. Clearly,
access to a diversity of seed types was strengthened by the Agreste community seed
banks, and seed storage capabilities and exchange of seeds expanded across the region.
Almeida and Cordeiro see crop biodiversity as, “the principal pillar for the
sustainability of family farming”, and they have proposed, “construction of a seed
security system oriented toward agrobiodiversity conservation (Almeida and Cordeiro,
1999: 49)”. The authors consider management of crop diversity by peasant farmers,
combined with establishment of community seed banks to be, “an anti-risk strategy,
providing flexible options and market advantages (Almeida and Cordeiro, 1999: 23)”.
The SINTAF cooperative maize seed project and the Agreste community seed
banks are two examples of successful native seed projects carried out by Brazil’s peasant
farmers. Both projects demonstrate ways in which preservation of traditional agricultural
practices and native seed conservation can strengthen economic security in rural
communities. These experiences help may inform and reinforce similar efforts in other
regions. The outcomes of these two seed projects are analyzed in comparison with
results at Bionatur in the final chapter.
The growth of agroecological farming and food markets in southern Brazil
In Brazil’s southern states a great deal of organizational activity takes place in and
67
between family farmers associations. Regional meetings, conferences, campaigns, and
public outreach take place constantly. Agroecological farming associations focus on
promoting organic foods, value-added farm goods and opening access to new markets.
Some associations are more oriented toward farm policy reform and in some cases are
aligned with the M.S.T. or with farm labor unions. Native seed conservation initiatives in
Brazil often seek to integrate agroecological and organic farming practices.
The ECOVIDA Network (Rede ECOVIDA) is a large umbrella network for a
decentralized coalition of 150 local family farm associations with 18 offices or “nuclei”
across Brazil’s three southern states. ECOVIDA provides member-farmers with
“participatory agroecological certification” for their products through its “ECOVIDA
Ecological Product” label. This network advocates for legalized regulation of organic
certification under state and federal law. Farmer-members with ECOVIDA participate in
informal organic product monitoring and certification, according to the Network’s
guidelines. Most members are long-established family farmers; reportedly few M.S.T.
farmers were participating in this network in 2003 (ECOVIDA, 2003; Meirelles, 2003).
Many native seed festivals, conferences and workshops on agroecology and seed
conservation have taken place over the past decade across southern Brazil. Those events
demonstrate the growing public interest in family farming and seed diversity. The
National Agroecology Encounter (Encontro Nacional de Agroecología- ENA) takes
place annually since 2002 in Rio de Janeiro, and hosts thousands of participants from
over fifty Brazilian farm syndicates, extension organizations and government agencies.
According to conference organizers, the conference promotes, “agroecology as an
alternative model for the rural space, in opposition to the dominant agrochemical
68
model...as an instrument for making family agriculture viable (ENA, 2002).” The First
Brazilian Congress on Agroecology took place in Porto Alegre in November 2003, cosponsored by Rio Grande do Sul’s state farm extension agency EMATER and the Federal
agricultural agency EMBRAPA.
Brazil’s renaissance of agroecology and family farming has occurred due partly to
changes in consumer choice. Although diet preferences and food consumer trends are
difficult to track, there is growing awareness among many Brazilians about potential
health benefits of organic foods and possible health risks of agrichemical contamination
in the food system. Middle and upper-class urban Brazilians typically consume a wide
variety of both cooked and raw vegetables in the daily diet. Many vegetarian and “health
food” restaurants are found in larger cities. Outdoor farmers’ markets are popular with
food shoppers in larger cities who look for healthful produce. Such consumers often buy
organic produce directly from family farmers. Farmers’ markets exist in many towns in
northern Rio Grande do Sul. For example, every weekend the Feira Colmeia in the state
capital of Porto Alegre, a large, popular outdoor farmers’ market, hosts over 100 family
farm produce stands. Other farmers’ markets exist in smaller cities in northern Rio
Grande do Sul, such as in Passo Fundo.
Such projects and trends are hopeful signs for a resurgence of family farming and
native seed saving in Brazil. A final look at the seed initiatives I studied and my
conclusions and recommendations are presented in the final chapter.
Chapter Five
Analysis and conclusions
69
In my thesis research I studied three projects that work to reproduce and distribute
native seed lines established by small-farm communities and allied organizations in
Brazil. In this final chapter, I identify and analyze constraints that impacted the work of
Bionatur Agroecological Seeds, and I attempt to determine causes and suggest solutions.
I provide a comparison of strategies and outcomes of Bionatur with two seed projects
described in Chapter Four, the SINTRAF native maize conservation project in Anchieta,
Santa Catarina state and the Agreste community seed banks in Paraíba state. I discuss
technical aspects, economic conditions and social dynamics extant at each project. I
conclude with recommendations for designing and implementing native seed
conservation projects in similar settings.
All three native seed projects I studied involved associations of smallholder
family farmers working in collaboration with farm extension organizations. The three
initiatives had certain similar goals; in essence, to improve access to useful, reproducible
seed types, and to conserve seed lots of traditional or native regional crops that are suited
to local economic needs and well adapted to regional cultivation conditions.
Clear differences existed in the missions and strategic approaches of the three
projects. Economic and social factors led to particular outcomes and modes of farmer
participation. The goals of my study were to better understand how specific conditions,
social dynamics and environmental factors had shaped each seed project, to examine
problems that emerged and to find workable solutions.
Constraint to Bionatur Seeds in 2002-2003
By early 2003 Bionatur Agroecological Seeds experienced problems operating
70
as an organic vegetable seed supplier in the regional commercial market; the project was
not to a significant extent supplying seeds to local farmers. At the time, Bionatur
management had identified a set of specific constraints and had initiated project
assessment. Our interviews and discussions helped shed light on the situation.
In 2003, Bionatur showed little capacity to compete in the regional vegetable
seed market as a small, relatively new and for-profit seed distributor. Financial
difficulties impeded operations, including low cash flow, lack of investment capital,
limited capacity for marketing, high costs for packaging materials and competition from
large regional commercial seed companies. In addition, Bionatur had nearly exhausted
its seed supplies.
The projects financial condition was worrying. According to company
documents, US$80,000 had been invested in Bionatur over six years, a small sum for a
market enterprise (Bionatur, 2002). The project’s financial assets were minimal in early
2003 and coordinators were seeking funding from international donors. In previous years
Bionatur had received limited credit from M.S.T. state-level coordination and state
extension agencies, but over time funding was reduced or re-directed toward dairy and
other production activities (Correa, 2003; Agent M, 2003).
Bionatur’s marketing capacity remained limited at the time. As a commercial
seed distributor, it lacked a printed catalog or a website adequate for conducting sales.
No product marketing and advertising was evident at the time. There was no clearly
defined business plan that could potentially attract investment and credit lines. Clearly,
the lack of personnel and financial resources impeded Bionatur from gaining a foothold
in the regional seed market. This begs the question of why in 2000 Bionatur turned
71
toward a strategy of marketing vegetable seed on a regional scale, as opposed to the
earlier goal of producing staple crop seeds for local distribution. This shift in strategy is
likely at the source of Bionatur’s problems.
The factor of farmer participation is important. In the field, I found that only a
small group of farmers in the case study area produced seed for Bionatur in its base
region. Bionatur seed had not caught on as a preferred production option among local
farmers after six years of operations. Impediments included low annual earnings per
farm, limited labor availability, delayed payment for harvested seed, and a lack of
familiarity and technical training in agroecological or organic farming techniques
Delayed payment for harvested seed posed untenable risk for local farmers. The
commercialization cycle for some seed lines, for example carrots, was up to two years.
Bionatur was not able to provide payment in advance to farmers to help meet future costs
of seed production (Correa, 2003; Bionatur, 2002). Also, the option of more profitable,
less labor-intensive production, including dairy and forage crops, was available to local
farmers (Manager P, 2003; Agent M, 2003).
In terms of farmer participation, in 2001 less than fifty local farms produced seed
for the project, out of approximately 1,200 farms in area settlements. Limited area was
planted by Bionatur, per seed variety and per farm. In a 2001 listing Bionatur seed lines
listed consisted of 21 varieties of organic vegetables. Total area planted that year for
Bionatur seed was 48 hectares, and the average area planted per seed variety was between
0.5 ha and two hectares. Seed production for Bionatur took place at 42 settlement farms
in 2003, averaging 1.14 hectares planted in seed crops per farm (area planted in seed per
farm was not evenly allocated). Thus, with average local farm size at 23 hectares,
72
vegetable seed production would utilize a small parcel of each participating farm
(Bionatur, 2002; see tables 3C and 3D).
Examining the above figures, it appears land availability was not an impediment
to producing seed. What seems evident is that the total volume of seed produced was very
small. For most farmers income from vegetable seed production probably did not justify
the cost of labor and supplies.
I suggest that the limited total area sowed locally in seed reflected both limited
farmer participation and lack of market demand for Bionatur products. Low farmer
participation reflected economic insecurity regarding unfamiliar production lines. Such
constraints made it difficult for Bionatur to maintain seed stocks and gain entry into the
regional seed market.
Data for income earned by Bionatur seed producers under is also significant.
From a 2002 company document, a total of R$26,000 23 was paid to 42 local farmers for
producing Bionatur’s 21 listed seed varieties. On average, gross income per individual
farmer for seed might have earned each about R$620. However, costs of production
would take 25% of gross income, and estimated net earnings per farm for seed might
have averaged close to R$ 465 per year 24 (Cooperal, 2002; see Table 3C in Chapter
Three).
For local farms with an estimated average annual net income of R$ 1,200 to R$
3,000
25
, earnings from seed produced for Bionatur appeared low to justify production
23
Value of the Brazilian Real (R) in early 2003: R$ 2.8 equaled approximately US$ 1.
This is a rough estimate; figures for seed production earnings per farm were not made available.
25
Average local income at Conquista da Fronteira settlements was roughly estimated by a project
extension agent (Agent M, 2003)
24
73
and labor costs 26 (Agent M, 2003). If seed production provided one third to one fifth of
average annual income per farm, one to two thirds of additional income would needed
from other production activities in order to earn an average income. For farmers with
limited available labor, producing seed for Bionatur could provide only part of the
necessary earnings to sustain a livelihood on the land.
Importantly, Bionatur produced seed of green vegetable varieties that were neither
in widespread use by food consumers at area farms or for sale at community food
markets. Thus, Bionatur staff interviewed expressed pessimism about the project’s
potential to expand farmer participation in vegetable seed production.
Comparative assessment of seed conservation strategies
Comparative analysis of Bionatur’s results with two seed cooperatives described
in Chapter Four is useful in identifying solutions. From the literature, the SINTRAF
maize seed conservation cooperative in Anchieta, Santa Catarina was designed and
established by a regional movement of smallholder family farmers. As of 1986, a
strategic framework for native maize conservation had been developed by a growing
coalition of local farmers and allied organizations. Field experiments with native maize
and technical courses in seed production took place locally from 1991 to 1993 with
assistance from AS-PTA, CETAP and other NGOs. By 1996, an extensive network of
26
Information on total project earnings and average revenue from seed per farm was not made available.
74
interested farmers was established, and along with a set of accepted criteria for selecting
and reproducing crioulo maize varieties.
It is clear that a solid cultural and social basis for native maize conservation had
long existed in the Anchieta region. Some farms had been established for over a
century. Families in the region had traditionally reproduced crioulo maize varieties.
Some local farmers had years of experience in organic farming, and extension agents had
over twenty years of experience with native seed conservation. Planning and discussion
of conserving native seed lines had taken place in the community for almost ten years
before the project initiated. Well-attended regional and national Maize Festivals took
place in Anchieta, further strengthening the region’s cultural pride in the value of native
seed conservation (Canci, 2002). Unfortunately, none of those advantages characterized
the conditions at Bionatur.
Economic advantages for seed conservation were also evident for SINTRAF’s
well-established farmers. Small-farm production in the Anchieta region is quite
diversified, including native or heirloom varieties of maize, beans, soybeans, and
tomatoes. For example, over fifty regional or crioulo varieties of beans are cultivated
locally. It is evident that more favorable economic conditions for seed production
existed from the outset at farms in Anchieta, unlike those at the Conquista da Fronteira
settlements. The fact that over 500 local farms were producing crioulo maize seed within
three years of establishing the SINTRAF maize project is evidence of this (Canci, 2002).
In comparison, farmers in the Conquista settlements were relative newcomers to
the area in 1997; most had minimal financial assets, and limited production capability and
75
access to markets. Thus, seed production for Bionatur could scarcely provide local
farmers with adequate earnings to justify labor and land use.
In the Agreste regions of Paraíba, the establishment of a network of community
seed banks represented a well-planned expansion of traditional seed saving practices of
local farmers. Seed reproduction and barter were long practiced in the Agreste (Almeida
and Cordeiro, 1999). Peasant farmers in the Agreste are accustomed to practicing
informal plant breeding and crop adaptation in the region’s demanding micro-ecological
zones. Long droughts in Brazil’s Northeast and difficult soil and climate conditions have
contributed to a cultural logic of farming that highly values seed saving. Crop
polyculture and intercropping techniques have been traditional practices of the region’s
small farmers, thus native crop diversity and plant knowledge is highly valued in local
communities. For example, Almeida and Cordeiro point out that in one case they
observed 67 varieties of bean cultivars planted in six local communities. In the Agreste,
the main seed lines chosen for reproduction, beans, cowpeas, and maize; well-established
crops in the regional diet (Almeida and Cordeiro, 1999).
I suggest that key factor in the success of Agreste seed banks was their non-profit
business structure. The Agreste seed banks were structured for seasonal exchange and
barter of seed lots; the mode of exchange was seed, not currency. Additionally, with a
large number of farmers’ markets across the region, farmers had more access to food
consumers (Almeida and Cordeiro, 1999). Such economic factors provided Agreste seed
producers with a higher degree of economic security than most farmers in the Conquista
da Fronteira settlements.
76
Seed conservation at the grassroots in developing regions depends on adequate
funding and access to technical resources. This takes place where expert allied
organizations can work directly with local farmers to initiate project planning and design,
and to provide technical extension, experimental research and credit assistance. It
appears that such advantages were present at both the Anchieta and Paraíba seed projects;
it was clear from my research that clearly the Bionatur seed project was limited in the
areas of participative planning, technical assistance and financing.
Comparison of mission and goals
In any development project, a clearly defined mission and a consistent set of goals
agreed upon by a critical mass of participants are fundamental factors in achieving a
successful outcome; lack of clarity in defining project goals can generate serious
problems. It is important to examine how Bionatur Seeds’ mission and goals were
defined. I examined changes in Bionatur’s mission and compared this to the other
projects in order to better understand difficult circumstances that emerged by 2003.
According to project founders, the goals at Bionatur at the outset were to conserve
native or regional crop varieties, and to improve local access to staple crops. Founding
member and first project manager Mr. João Rockett had focused the project’s efforts on
conserving staple crop varieties, mainly beans and maize. In 1997 and 1998 Bionatur
produced ample stocks of seed of staple crops. Mr. Rockett envisioned three main longterm goals: the sustainable seasonal reproduction of staple seed lines, the establishment
of an in-situ conservation bank for native seeds, and the introduction of organic farming
77
to local M.S.T. settlements. Rockett saw Bionatur as an effort to strengthen regional
crop diversity and promote seed conservation among local farmers. Entry into the
regional commercial seed market was clearly not his priority (Rockett, 2003).
From the start Mr. Rockett and Mr. Correa promoted adoption of organic seed
production in the settlements in order to ensure the environmental integrity of local
farmland and water resources. From their perspective, Bionatur Seeds was a means of
avoiding dependency on non-reproducible commercial seed and diminishing
environmental and health risks by avoiding use of commercial agrichemicals (Rockett,
2003; Correa, 2003).
In initial years, a broader goal of extensive regional native seed conservation was
still unmet, requiring access to facilities and personnel that were not available, such as a
seed conservation bank, field trials and staff experienced in seed saving (Rockett, 2003).
Such goals were similar to those implemented at the Anchieta maize project and the
Agreste seed banks (see Chapter 4).
Mr. Rockett left Bionatur in 1999. Later, the Cooperal cooperative, owners of
Bionatur, evidently opted for an approach toward commercial seed sales and entry into
the niche market for organically-produced regional vegetable seed. Thus, a systematic
approach toward prior goals of native seed conservation and local food security was
much less in evidence.
Unfortunately, Bionatur’s move toward entering the commercial seed market
coincided with a period of severe climate stress in the region, and setbacks to the project.
From 2000 to 2002, extreme rainfall and flooding heavily impacted farming in Brazil’s
south. Bionatur began to languish due to reduced seed harvests, seed storage problems,
78
and limited farmer participation; entry into the market was stymied (Rockett, 2003;
Manager P, 2003; Correa, 2003).
It is not entirely clear why after 2000 Bionatur opted for a market-oriented
approach, rather than a focus on producing seed of staple food crops, such as beans, rice
and maize. At the time of my field study, Bionatur Seeds was barely functioning as a forprofit agroecological vegetable seed company, showing little evident capacity to establish
a foothold in the regional market.
In January 2003 a group of representatives from the U.S. Ford Foundation and
Tides Foundation spoke with Bionatur’s managers in Porto Alegre, at a meeting which I
attended and where I was language interpreter. The foundation representatives expressed
a lack of understanding about the exact nature of Bionatur Seed’s mission and goals.
They were unsure of its different functions and asked Bionatur to clarify whether it was a
for-profit commercial vegetable seed firm, a non-profit native seed conservation project,
or both. Prior to any commitment to invest or help fund the project, these potential
donors requested a well-defined business plan that could better explain Bionatur’s
functions. Thus, Bionatur’s lack of a well-defined mission and goals appeared to be a
fundamental flaw in its structure and a cause of ongoing problems.
One problem was establishment of Bionatur in communities of low-income
farmers who apparently had limited affinity and training in organic farming and seed
saving. As best I could determine, there did not appear to be a strong tradition of native
seed conservation among farmers in the Conquista da Fronteira settlements.
I propose that careful search for and identification of farmers who are expert
traditional seed savers and willing and motivated participants is essential in establishing
79
seed projects at the grassroots. Such conditions appear to have been present at the
SINTRAF maize and Anchieta seed bank projects, where the incentive to conserve native
seeds originated mainly from local farmers themselves; evidently this was not the case at
Bionatur.
As compared to Bionatur, I found clear differences in the mission, goals and
trajectories of the two seed projects described in Chapter Four. The SINTRAF
Cooperative’s maize conservation project was successful in conserving numerous native
or heirloom maize varieties, in involving large numbers of farmers, and in promoting
native maize seed exchanges across Santa Catarina state. The SINTRAF project
benefited from several key advantages. It focused on native maize, a highly-valued
staple food crop that is widely consumed and exchanged regionally. A cultural tradition
of seed native maize saving had long existed among farmers in the Anchieta region
SINTRAF carried out long-term planning and counted on technical expertise and support
from the experienced organization AS-PTA (Canci, 2003).
In the case of the Agreste Community seed bank project in Paraíba, the project
mission focused on reproducing and exchanging seeds of traditionally valued and
consumed staple food crops. This non-commercial approach was based on lending and
exchanging seed lots of diverse crops by means of numerous local seed banks. Emphasis
was placed on facilitating seed storage, both on individual farms and at community seed
banks. The result was a highly participative and well networked system of regional seed
banks, supplied by hundreds of farms across the region (Almeida and Cordeiro, 1999).
At both the SINTRAF maize and Agreste see projects, farmer participation grew
rapidly. This was in part due to the cultural familiarity of local farmers with the seed
80
types of staple crops that were exchanged. By contrast, at Bionatur Seeds the vegetable
seeds produced were not widely consumed on local farms. Also, the level of technical
support was somewhat tenuous considering the difficult goal of producing seeds
organically, which was not a requirement of the SINTRAF and Agreste projects.
I submit that the shift in Bionatur’s mission after 1999 toward marketing organic
vegetable seed lines was not well suited to the needs and conditions of most farms in the
Conquista da Fronteira settlements. In that particular social setting, Bionatur would
benefit from addressing local farming conditions, and the pressing economic and
nutritional needs of recently settled low-income families, rather than a strategy of
supplying a niche sector of the regional seed market. Seed conservation projects in
peasant farming communities may encounter risks by taking on such an untested marketoriented approach.
This is not to say that Bionatur had failed completely. But it was evident to me in
my research, and to most people I interviewed there, that the project had reached
stagnation in its activities by 2003; it was evident that new approaches were needed.
Considering the large number of M.S.T. farm settlements across Brazil, and the
movement’s ample intellectual resources and capacity for building networks, Bionatur
Seeds would benefit from being re-structured over time as nationwide project that is more
focused on seeds to ensure local food security and reduce dependency on commercial
seed markets, i.e., an approach more akin to the SINTRAF maize and the Agreste seed
bank projects. In fact, at the time of my research Bionatur staff and Mr. Correa were
discussing a redesign of the mission and the possibility of expanding nationally; ideas
which may have by now been implemented, if at least partially.
81
Environmental limitations to Bionatur’s operations
I suggest that concentration Bionatur’s seed production in a relatively small land
area created problems, mainly in terms of impact from climate stress and difficult soil
conditions. High rainfall and soil saturation in 2002 reduced seed yields and caused
spoilage of much of Bionatur’s stored seed harvest. The limited area sowed for seed
crops and the lack of on-site germination models and experimental plots did not allow for
plant breeding gradual crop adaptation to diverse climate conditions. In contrast,
Paraíba’s Agreste community seed banks were dispersed over a wide geographic area,
which provided security from climate extremes.
Harvest security for seed crops could be better achieved by projects that
encompass large regions with diverse ecological zones, micro-climates and soil types.
This approach involves allocating seed production to an extensive regional network of
expert seed savers in widely dispersed communities. It also depends on carrying out
surveys to identify farmers with the motivation, economic capability, plant breeding
knowledge and seed saving expertise to conserve native seed in order to organize a broad
network of seed savers. An emphasis on valued traditional cultivars and attention to local
dietary customs are additional advantages. This goes along with hiring well trained
extension personnel, providing adequate storage facilities and appropriate technical
training, and establishing in situ seed storage and conservation banks. Such key elements
were present at the SINTRAF maize project and the Agreste community seed banks, but
not as evident at Bionatur Seeds.
82
Organic seed production: introduction of unfamiliar farming practices
Bionatur Seeds’ approach toward agroecological techniques represented a logical
extension of M.S.T. strategic guidelines for promoting agrichemical-free farming and
ensuring better health and environmental conditions. However, by the time of my
research little progress had been made toward adoption of organic farming at settlement
farms (Correa, 2003; Manager P, 2003). Most local farmers, with a few exceptions,
were unfamiliar with organic farming; many utilized agrichemical pesticides and
fertilizers. Some non-chemical pest control techniques were used on a limited basis.
There were unmet needs for extension training in organic methods, for models of
composting and organic fertilization, and for biological and intermediate pest control
methods (Agent M, 2003; Farmer J, 2003; CETAP, 2003).
Creating a social culture of organic farming requires years of experimentation,
technical education, and mitigation of the risks of transition. Low-income peasant
farmers on marginal land, such those at Conquista da Fronteira, will not easily adopt
organic farming without having ways of avoiding higher labor requirements and income
insecurity during the transition. In regions where agribusiness dominates supply markets,
it may be easier for farmers simply to purchase and utilize agrichemicals. Thus, organic
farming remains an unfamiliar, riskier “alternative” approach for many of Brazil’s
peasant farmers, including in some M.S.T. communities.
However, there are some hopeful signs. A demand for organic produce and
agroecological goods was reportedly growing in southern Brazil at the time of my
research, and my observation of urban farmers markets confirms this. Still, in the
83
Campanha region there appeared to be a very limited demand for organic produce at the
time of my research. Growth over time of a strong regional consumer market for
agroecological goods and organic produce will be a key factor for the successful
introduction of organic farming. Further study of such processes is important for the
benefit of farmers in developing regions.
Organization of labor, dietary customs and economic asymmetry in local
communities
The research showed that outcomes for Bionatur Seeds may have been partly
determined by the cultural origins and culinary norms of local families, as well as by the
prevailing economic conditions.
Most settlers in the study area were relative newcomers to the Campanha region,
and families originated from diverse ethnic and social backgrounds. Some were migrants
from northern parts of Rio Grande do Sul state; others from Santa Catarina state and
elsewhere. Prior to settlement, some families were subsistence farmers on marginal
land, others were landless sharecroppers, others were rural wage laborers; a few came
from towns and cities. Most farmers at the Conquista settlements had worked
individually to move beyond subsistence farming toward producing goods for sale in
local markets (Manager P, 2003; Farmer J; Navarro, Moraes, and Menezes, 1997).
I submit that farmers of diverse backgrounds with little prior experience of
working in groups are not as likely to pool their labor to work collectively or in networks.
In highly networked, collaborative projects, such as the SINTRAF maize and Anchieta
seed banks, the farmers clearly benefitted from a taking a more collective approach to
84
seed saving.
Interviewees at Conquista da Fronteira reported that many local farmers opted to
work independently, and identified less with cooperative initiatives and M.S.T. guidelines
for forming collectives. For example, many farms contracted directly with private firms
for dairy production (Manager P, 2003; Agent M, 2003).
The small farms at Conquista da Fronteira often had only one or two working
adults. Farm work was done with minimal farm machinery, and farms were often hardpressed to maintain a single line of production. Families whose adult children migrated
were at a greater disadvantage in terms of available labor. Some families facing serious
difficulties had abandoned farming for wage jobs elsewhere. Under such economic
conditions, seed production for the local cooperative, with minimal earnings and
considerable labor requirements, was not a viable option for many.
Seed projects at the grassroots may benefit from involving farmers who are
willing to pool their labor to work collectively. Rather than individual farmers producing
seed on small sections of each farm, a large parcel of community land might be allocated
and collectively managed for seed production. A collectively organized seed system may
allow farmers to share labor and reduce individual economic risk.
M.S.T. national coordination has attempted to promote collective farming
initiatives. However, adoption of collective labor has remained low among M.S.T.
farmers as a whole, involving less than 15% of M.S.T. farms across Brazil. Geographer
Wendy Wolford has written about popular participation in the M.S.T and has identified
cultural norms that shape farmers’ attitudes toward collective work. She looked at how
two different regional populations of M.S.T. farmers perceived collective organization of
85
labor. She points out that in the northeastern states of Pernambuco and Bahía many
peasant farmers have a prior history of plantation or wage labor. Such farmers may have
a stronger expectation of earning a weekly wage and doing hierarchically directed tasks,
and thus may be less accustomed to investing land and labor to farm collectively, even if
it would reduce economic risk. Dr. Wolford sees potential for collectives within M.S.T.,
but posits that many Brazilian peasant farmers are simply unfamiliar and hesitant to
engage in collective farming initiatives (Wolford, 2001).
Farmers in the Conquista case study area were from diverse backgrounds; some
were formerly autonomous subsistence farmers; others were farm laborers. It was
evident that for many farmers in the area, farm self-reliance and independent production
choices were the important priorities, more so than participating in a collective seed
initiative (Farmer J; Farmer A; Manager P.).
It appeared from the research that producing vegetable seeds organically on a
small section of the farm was neither cost-effective nor efficient use of labor for most
local farms in the study area. Bionatur staff reported that many families at local
settlements had opted for dairy and/or forage crops because those lines were less labor
intensive and generated a steadier income than other activities (Manager P, 2003; Agent
M, 2003).
Horticultural crops can improve the nutritional standards of peasant farm families.
However, this approach depends on the prevalence of home gardens, as well as on local
culinary practices and dietary preferences. The diet of most families in the study area is
largely based on beef, rice and beans, with some use of carrots, cucurbits and onions.
Mate (Ilex paraguayensis) a nutritious tea beverage, is consumed in large quantities but is
86
not produced locally. With some exceptions, home food gardens were seldom observed
or reported at local farms. Thus, the vegetable seed lines produced by Bionatur appeared
to be somewhat removed from local community gardening and culinary practices.
Enhancing food diversity and improving nutritional standards in peasant farm settlements
remains an important area for additional research.
In sum, I suggest that changes in the mission and goals at Bionatur Seeds, along
with the introduction of unfamiliar agroecological farming strategies, and limited
economic benefits to individual farmers from seed production resulted in a low level of
participation in the project. By comparison, the Anchieta maize and Agreste seed bank
projects provided clear economic incentive and nutritional benefits to local communities,
as self-organized networks that motivated a broad farmer participation.
Development theorists Guha and Martinez-Alier have articulated a theory of
ecological distribution problems in low-income rural communities in their work on
“environmentalism of the poor”. They have outlined how environmental problems and
economic conflicts can impact economically marginalize rural populations (Guha and
Martinez-Alier, 2000: 31-45). Following their criteria, I suggest that Bionatur’s seed
producers and farmers in the Campanha region may be at risk from the following factors:
A) Economic inequality and asymmetry: family farmers suffer from low earnings
and limited available labor, lack of technical training, and from being restricted to
marginal environmental and economic spaces. Better farmland is controlled by
agribusiness and wealthy landowners.
B) Resource exhaustion: Genetic erosion of crop diversity: valuable traditional
crops and native seed varieties disappear due to neglect and market pressures.
87
Local soil types are physically problematic; the land base is marginal and eroded.
C) Ecologically unequal trade: commercialized and transgenic seed lines are
“dumped” in the market, sold at low prices and brought in by contraband, creating
a disincentive for seed reproduction on the farm. Competition from agrichemicalbased mechanized farming limits small farmers’ entry into local food consumer
markets and the commercial seed market.
Such problems existed at the Conquista da Fronteira settlements and may have
influenced local farmers choice to opt out of seed production. Regardless of social or
political affiliation, every peasant farmer’s primary needs are to feed the family, sustain
farm production from season to season and earn an adequate income to survive on the
land. For peasant farmers in the Campanha, one or two failed seasons can lead to
bankruptcy and even abandonment of farming. Under precarious conditions, producing
organic vegetable seeds for sale to Bionatur Seeds was a questionable proposition and
evidently not a viable option for most farmers at the time of my research.
Conclusions
For its first three years the Bionatur Seeds project focused on reproducing seeds
for staple crops; it ample seed good harvests and was able to thrive. I suggest that a
change in strategy after 2000 to commercialize a broad line of organically produced
vegetable seeds in regional markets may have been premature. The change was not
widely adopted by farmers in the local communities. Outcomes were complicated by the
88
fact that Bionatur was competing for commercial space in a regional seed market
dominated by well-capitalized private farmers and large seed companies. This may have
discouraged local farmers who faced urgent food security and farm production needs.
The enterprise also appeared to be hindered by the absence of key elements. In
my assessment, such constraints included: lack of a well-defined mission and business
plan, absence of consistent financial backing and secure credit lines, lack of technical
training in seed production, lack of participatory planning alongside farmers, the need for
a seed conservation bank and experimental trials, and possibly for a collective approach
to seed production.
I summarize here the principal constraints to positive outcomes experienced by
Bionatur Agroecological Seeds through 2003:
A) Mission and goals: changes in strategy and management over the first 6 years;
uncertainty due to changes and lack of definition of the project’s mission.
B) Environmental constraints: low harvest yields and depletion of seed stocks due to
difficult soils and climate stress; limited geographic distribution of seed producers.
C) Economic problems: low capital flow and minimal credit; small and often delayed
earnings to farmers from seed; limited market access and weak demand for organic seeds
in local markets; minimal capacity for marketing and sales; high packaging costs. Also, a
trend toward less labor intensive, individualized production options, such as dairy.
D) Technical needs: farmers’ unfamiliarity and resistance to adopting organic or
agroecological practices; limited technical training resources and personnel; lack of onsite seed experiments, plant breeding trials, or adequate organic farming models; lack of a
seed conservation bank.
89
By comparison, the strategies of the SINTRAF maize seed project and the
Agreste seed banks appeared to have more technical resources available and were more
in tune with the economic conditions and dietary needs of farmers in those regions.
In response to evident problems, by early 2003 Bionatur project managers were
developing plans to restructure and expand Bionatur into a national seed exchange
network. The new goal was to identify and involve small groups of experienced seed
savers in M.S.T. communities across other regions of Brazil (Correa, 2003).
I hope there is some value in the rather negative assessment of Bionatur Seeds
that I present here. As an outsider who is no expert in seed production, my critical
perspective of Bionatur may seem presumptuous. However, my conclusions are based on
open minded assessment of Bionatur Seeds outcomes following my field studies,
extensive discussions with Bionatur’s stakeholders, and follow-up analysis.
The research led me to explore ideas about how seed conservation projects in
low-income peasant communities might best be designed and organized. My
recommendations are outlined in the following section.
Recommendations for native seed conservation projects
I submit that seed conservation initiatives can best succeed in well-selected
cultural settings in which seed conservation and plant breeding are traditional, longestablished practices. Farmers with experience in plant breeding and seed selection, and
deep knowledge of seed saving and crop diversity, along with historical roots on the land,
will succeed in carrying out seed conservation projects.
90
From what I learned, I offer here guidelines for designing and supporting native
seed conservation in peasant farm communities:
•
Identification of experienced seed savers in geographically diverse communities
who are highly motivated toward conserving regional crop biodiversity.
•
Extensive long-term participatory planning by farmers & allied organizations,
with focus on strengthening traditional farming practices and local economic
conditions.
•
Availability of consistent funding and credit lines.
•
Extensive training of participating farmers by experienced seed savers and plant
breeders, along with experimental trials and plant breeding models.
•
Appropriate facilities for seed processing, storage and distribution.
•
Establishment of on-site regional seed conservation banks, both per farm and in
central locations.
•
Focus on community nutrition and food security, rather than on market approach.
Additional recommendation include strengthening coordination between involved
organizations and state institutions, developing training systems in seed conservation for
extension agents and farmers, and in-depth participative surveys to identify local needs
and affinity for seed conservation.
Bionatur has continued to function locally in the Campanha region, but reportedly
has begun to expand as a national seed network 27 to M.S.T. settlements in the states of
Minas Gerais, Paraná, Federal District, and Ceara. Bionatur, as a national seed network,
carried out participative diagnostic surveys in several peasant communities in late 2003
27
Rede Nacional Bionatur de Sementes Agroecologicas
91
and 2004. Coordinators were hoping to adapt seed production to conditions in each state
by involving experienced seed savers, community leaders and technical agents in forming
new seed cooperatives (Correa and Monteiro, 2004). These major changes in strategy
and scope are timely; hopefully, those expanded efforts will engender positive results.
Agroecological farming will likely become more established in Brazil’s peasant
communities, where some sectors of the federal and state governments are promoting
alternative methods. Alternative farming will necessarily be adapted to local
environmental conditions and the economic needs of each community. Ultimately, such
a transition will be carried out over the long run by individual farmers and farm
cooperatives, and will be influenced by changing food consumer markets.
Family-based small farm systems in Brazil and elsewhere are experiencing rapid
changes. As peasant farmers unite in global movements, there are hopeful signs for the
economic sustainability of small-scale family farming. Native seed conservation and
crop diversity will be key factors toward reaching that ideal.
92
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