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Should Sculpin from the Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska Be Added to the North
Pacific Food System?

By
Jennifer Ann Vandever

A Thesis
Submitted in partial fulfillment
Of the requirements for the degree
Master of Environmental Study
The Evergreen State College
June 2012

© 2012 by Jennifer A. Vandever. All rights reserve

This Thesis for the Master of Environmental Studies Degree
By
Jennifer A. Vandever
has been approved for
The Evergreen State College
by

___________________________
Martha L. Henderson, PhD

__________________________
Date

ABSTRACT
Should Sculpin from the Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska Be Added to the North Pacific Food System?

Jennifer A. Vandever
With the world’s population increasing rapidly and expected to reach 8 billion by 2024, food sources are
quickly becoming over-utilized. Fish and seafood are a popular source of nutrition for many cultures;
however, policy and history have lead United States fisheries in the Bering Sea, Alaska, to throw away
many fishes (bycatch) that could possibly be used for human consumption. One example of bycatch
from the Bering Sea that has potential for human consumption is sculpin, a diverse group of fishes that
exist in all oceans, except the Indian Ocean and is currently not targeted. By changing U.S. policy to
mandate all bycatch in Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska fisheries be kept and marketed, impacts on the
ecosystem could be lessened and more fish foods could enter the American and world diets.

Table of Contents

Chapter I: Introduction

1

Chapter II: A Short Review of Food and Fish Literature, and Research Methods

5

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

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

Historical Fishing
Overfishing
Bycatch
Diversity in the Human Fish Supply
Sculpin as a Possible Human Fish Supply

9
10
13
16
19

Chapter III: Fisheries Bycatch as a Potential Food Source

21

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





Present and Future Fish Supplies in North America
Fishing in the Bering Sea
Sculpin in the North Pacific
Policy
Fisheries Management
Ecology of Sculpin
Representatives of Sculpin Caught in the Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska
o Great Sculpin
o Warty Sculpin
o Plain Sculpin
o Bigmouth Sculpin
o Yellow Irish Lord
Effects of Bycatch in the Fishing System

Chapter IV: Analysis of Findings




Participant Observation
Bycatch as a New Food Supply
Taste Test

25
27
31
35
40
42
46
46
47
47
48
49
50
56
59
59
67

Chapter V: Conclusion

73

References

78

List of Figures
Figure 1: North Pacific Ocean areas critical to the United States fishing supplies 25
Figure 2: Codend filled with about 120 mt of pollock and bycatch species

34

Figure 3: Image of a Great Sculpin (Myoxocephalus polyacanthocephalus)

45

Figure 4: Image of a Warty Sculpin (M. verrucosus)

47

Figure 5: Image of a Plain Sculpin (M. joak)

47

Figure 6: Image of a Bigmouth Sculpin (Hemitripterus bolini)

48

Figure 7: Image of a Yellow Irish Lord (Hemilepidontus jordani)

49

Figure 8: Image of a Yellow Irish Lord being filleted for taste test

67

Figure 9: Fish Preferences based on Question, “Which Samples do you Prefer?” 71

Acknowledgements
Special thanks to my reader, Martha Henderson, for helping me finish and to Amy Cook for helping me
get started. Thanks to Ralph Murphy for introducing me to fishery economics. Thank you, also, to my
partner, Amber Vandever, for listening to paragraph after paragraph read aloud often many times and
being cool with cut apart thesis taking up the entire kitchen.

Chapter I: Introduction
As human populations have increased worldwide and continue to grow exponentially,
fish sources are decreasing at a steady rate. Many of the fishes being caught do not have an
existing market in North America, and are, therefore, thrown overboard without reaching
shore. These undesired fishes are called bycatch. The rising need for a source of protein to feed
many developing countries, means new food sources should be explored. One such food source
is fisheries bycatch currently wasted as a food source by throwing it overboard, causing shifts in
ecosystems and often leading to declines in multiple fish populations. Bycatch causes many
problems in an already fragile ecosystem due to its removal, sometimes resulting in the
depletion of populations, and the reintroduction of dead fish material into the food web.
Adding bycatch species to the North Pacific food system, North American diets, and
world market could increase exports from Alaska and the United States of fish proteins and
food sources helping to alleviate many hunger issues around the world while also decreasing
the amount of fish waste removed, killed, and returned to an ecosystem already endangered by
many anthropogenic stressors. Therefore, should sculpin from the Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska
be added to the North Pacific food system?
Historically, humans have targeted species that are easy to catch, then began targeting a
different species when overfishing caused the original species to become more difficult to catch
in large amounts. The resulting management attempts have caused policies mandating certain
vessel can only target specific species during designated seasons, giving us the term “bycatch.”
This has resulted in an increase in bycatch species and a decrease in marketability and/or desire

to market non-target species, as single-fish fisheries have emerged in the Bering Sea and Gulf of
Alaska.
As an observer aboard commercial fishing vessels in the Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska, I
personally witnessed many species of bycatch wasted as the dead fishes were thrown
overboard. Many of these species would produce a fillet of meat as large as or larger than the
targeted species and have the same white meat preferred by the North American market.
One example of an underutilized bycatch species is the sculpin. Found in the North
Pacific, sculpin have potential of expanding North America’s fish supplies due to abundance in
the Bering Sea, fillet size, meat flavor, and meat texture. However, due to policies and ease of
catch followed by generations and generations of fishing, North American fishers target fishes
that can be caught in abundance with greater ease, were easier to process historically, and had
a less menacing look than sculpin.
Traditionally, the recommendation for problems concerning overfishing and bycatch is
to stop what is causing the problem: stop targeting certain fish that coexist with undesired
species, stop fishing in particular areas to help increase populations or avoid non-target species,
or, even, to stop fishing completely. However, by developing bycatch policies, similar to those
found in other parts of the world, mandating all bycatch be kept in Bering Sea and Gulf of
Alaska fisheries, a market would develop for all species and sculpin could be used for human
consumption allowing less waste of fish protein from the Bering Sea. These more inclusive
bycatch policies allowing fishing operations to continue as they are currently, but with all fish
kept and marketed creating a multi-fish fishery, would also alleviate many problems associate
with what we currently term bycatch and overfishing.

While creating a market for all fish could potentially create a larger problem with
overfishing, mandating all fish be kept and placing taxes on fish the stakeholders wish fishers to
avoid would ensure fishers continue to use avoidance measures to prevent the capture of
fishes they do not have a quota for. By creating a tax high enough to discourage continued
catch but low enough to prevent incentive to misrepresent numbers, fishers would be
encouraged to bring all fish species caught to market and some profit could be made by the
fishers and fishing companies even if the vessel does not own a quota.
To help create a market for fishes caught and kept, non-profit organizations could use
social marketing, the use of marketing to help solve a social issue or issues, to encourage the
consumption of fishes unfamiliar to the North American consumer. In recent history, non-profit
organizations have used a wide variety of methods to inform the public on overfishing, bycatch,
and sustainability issues. An extension of programs already in place could include listing
sustainably caught “bycatch” as a potential choice in the American and Canadian diets or
creating media, such as cookbooks, to encourage the consumption of “bycatch” species that
are unfamiliar.
Many fish species are often mislabeled in our currently food system, such as Patagonian
toothfish and Chilean seabass, as a result of market preferences, policy, and overfishing or
bycatch problems. As a result of this mislabeling, misnaming, and/or renaming or mixing of
fishes sent to market, often consumers purchasing sea food from their local market do not
know what they are eating.

Potentially, this not knowing could be used to the advantage of fishers attempting to
market new fishes. However, it does encourage questions about what North America and the
world are actually eating.

Chapter II: A Short Review of Food and Fish Literature and Research Methods
With the world’s population reaching 7 billion in 2011, and estimated to reach 8 billion
by 2024, food and nutrition have becoming increasingly important topics. Malnutrition,
especially in less developed countries, is a widespread issue. Despite a recognition of food
scarcity, fisheries policies and commercial fishing histories, have created a social issue
preventing some fishes that are caught from entering the market. Therefore, potential fish
proteins are thrown away due to a lack of market, leading to unwanted bycatch and a loss of
possible food sources. This often also means that fishes entering the market are priced too high
for people who need fish proteins the most to afford. Frequently, the very people who catch
many fish species cannot even afford them.
Fish is a known source of low-fat protein, vitamins and some necessary trace minerals.
Research demonstrates omega-3 fatty acids aid in optimal brain function, reduce danger of
heart attack and strokes, and possibly delay onset of arthritis and osteoporosis (Clover, 2008).
There are also reports that a diet full of fish can help with weight loss by switching off human
hunger hormones (Clover, 2008; International Seafood Byproduct Conference & Bechtel, 2003).
The health benefits of seafoods come from long chained omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty
acids (PUFA), found exclusively in marine organisms, including fishes, algae, and marine
mammals. Popular fish oils on the market contain mainly triacylglycerols and fish liver oils, a
source for vitamin A that helps human health by lowering the level of serum triacylglycerols;
cholesterol; and, sometimes, blood pressure (International Seafood Byproduct Conference &
Bechtel, 2003). They can also relieve arthritic swelling and pain, type II diabetes, and increase
the body’s immune system.

Fish oils may increase fluidity of blood, and have also been shown to dominate the fatty
acid spectrum of the brain and retina lipids and play an essential role in development of fetus
and infant brains. Fish oils, especially, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid
(DHA), may also be helpful in decreasing cancer, metabolic syndrome, depression, bipolar
disorder, and angry and hostile behavior. Some naturopaths even suggest fish oil supplements
for Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). In
most of these disorders, EPA and DHA insufficiency displaces the metabolic homeostasis of a
healthy state.
Some examples of the role of fish in the human diet are walleye pollock and Pacific
salmon. Pollock has about .5 g of EPA and DHA per 100 g of fish. Pacific salmon has about 1-1.4
g of EPA and DHA per 100 g of fish. Pacific salmon is considered to have the highest amounts of
EPA and DHA. Recommended daily intake of EPA and DHA is between 160 – 850 mg a day
depending on what organization produced the numbers (International Seafood Byproduct
Conference & Bechtel, 2003). The lingcod is comparable to a sculpin based on life history and
evolutionary traits. It is found only in west coast waters of the United States, and is a member
of the greenling family (Hexagrammidae). Ling cod is considered by many to be ‘one of the least
attractive but best tasting fish in Pacific waters’ (Green, 2007). Nutritionally, ling cod is made up
of 89% protein and 11% fat and has an amino acid score of 148 indicating a high quality protein
(anything above 100 is considered to be a high quality protein) (Conde Nast, 2011). It is a good
source of niacin, B6, potassium, B12, selenium, and phosphorus (Conde Nast, 2011). Ling cod,
as with most white fish, is considered to have mildly anti-inflammatory properties due to the
omega-3 fatty acids (Conde Nast, 2011). One drawback to eating ling cod, however, is that it is

high in cholesterol (Conde Nast, 2011). Due to similarities, it can be estimated that sculpin meat
would produce similar nutrition for humans as the ling cod.
In addition to social concerns related to overpopulation and decreasing food sources,
the discard of unwanted fishes causes changes in ecosystems. Often fish that do not have a
market are less regulated and can easily become overfished (Larson, House, & Terry, 1998).
Decreases in some species of fish coupled with the addition of discarded fish waste often leads
to decreases in biodiversity in commercially fished areas.
Due to the overexploited status of most fisheries in the world and the diverse
populations of all fishes, identification of species or populations that are vulnerable to
extinction is much needed with a hope of implementing regulation and/or measures to counter
damage caused (Cheung, Pitcher, & Pauly, 2005). There is some debate of assessment of
extinction vulnerabilities, particularly with the issue of what defines a ‘large fish;’ and much
more research is needed, not only for sculpins specifically, but for fishes and fish vulnerabilities
and the impacts of the fishing industry on the ecosystems as a whole (Cheung et al., 2005).
Research methods for this investigation include an archival literature review including
secondary resources and studies over the history of commercial fishing, fishing as a cultural
issue, and a review of cook books for fish cooking methodology and as a historical reference for
consumption of fish (Barka, 2008). Primary literature review includes fish as a social science, the
history of fish consumption and commercial fishing, fisheries ecology, Bering Sea ecology, and
anthropological studies discussing food sources throughout the world.
In addition, to archival research, personal experience as a National Marine Fisheries
Service North Pacific Groundfish Observer (NMFS-NPGOP) from June 2005 through July 2007 in

the Bering Sea, Gulf of Alaska, and off the United States North Pacific coasts of Washington and
Oregon are included. As an observer, I collected data on specific species, weight, and numbers
of all fishes brought aboard commercial fishing vessels targeting pollock, Pacific cod, rockfishes,
flatfishes, and hake as part of the NMFS Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska management programs.
As part of this program, I potentially collected the data used in many of the archival records
used in this investigation.
Methodology for taste-testing was performed using a Preference Taste Test (Succop,
1998). Taste tests have been used by consumer marketers and behavioral researchers for a long
time. Taste tests have been shown to have validity when addressing food and human
consumption (Borderias, Lamua, & Tejada, 1983; Gruber & Lindberg, 1966). Following the taste
test, panel members were presented with frozen whole fishes similar to ones that would be
found at a grocery for visual assessment.
Bycatch is a major international ecological, social, and economic issue. Because of its
impact, many organizations throughout the world recognize the importance of understanding
the issue. Bycatch harms ecosystems and the economic integrity of the commercial fishing
industry, often meaning unsustainable amounts of fish are removed from the ecosystem,
greatly affecting biodiversity of the area. Return of the bycatch to the system can also change
foraging patterns of scavengers and opportunistic feeders that learn to utilize discarded
bycatch.
In addition bycatch that is thrown overboard is lost as potential food for a growing
world population indicating a growing social issue. For these reasons assessing whether sculpin

should be added to the North Pacific food system is an interdisciplinary issue that should be
addressed from many angles.
Historical Fishing. As has been previously discussed by many authors including Mark
Kurlansky (Kurlansky, 1998), Taras Grescoe (Grescoe, 2009), and Charles Clover (Clover, 2008),
the history of commercial fishing is a complicated one filled with economic, technological,
biological, and social issues. It seems commercial fishing has always been about what resource
is convenient. For example, salmon became popular commercially because they were easy to
catch as they headed up rivers to spawn. The ease that they were caught and the predictability
of salmon runs were probably why natives and early settlers caught them originally.
As fishing technology has increased, the ability to catch schooling fishes in the North
Pacific has also increased, causing fishers to target Pacific Ocean perch, flatfishes and other
easy to catch fishes. Often the ease of catch has led to issues of overfishing. History, however,
shows that humans have overfished populations time and again. The walleye pollock (Theragra
chalcogramma), listed as a baitfish into the late 19th century, began being fished commercially
in the 1930s (Aydin & Mueter, 2007). Then, as stocks of yellowfin declined due to overfishing by
Japanese and Soviet Union vessels, pollock became the primary target species (Barns, Loefflad,
& Karp, 2005). Pollock and Pacific cod became a main target species as the abundance of
Pacific Ocean perch decreased after the mid-1960s, suspected to be caused by overfishing. By
the mid-1970s, pollock had become the biggest single species fishery in the world because
pollock is well suited to trawl fishing: it schools in masses and prefers shallow water (Browning
& Cole, 1980). As a result, the pollock fishery too has shown signs of over exploitation.
Generally, as one species begins to show signs of depletion, commercial fishing for another

species picks up. As one fish becomes overfished, we just supplement it with another fish. The
change in public taste is often a reflection of the changes in marine ecosystems (Jacquet &
Pauly, 2007).
Overfishing. Overfishing refers to a situation where the fishing industry removes more
fish than can be replaced by reproduction of fish left in the ecosystem. Due to improvements in
fishing technology, fishing yields have grown dramatically in the last fifty years (Lerner &
Lerner, 2009). There are several examples of fisheries that have been destroyed by overfishing,
such as, the Atlantic cod fishery in North America or the orange roughy fishery in New Zealand
(Lerner & Lerner, 2009).
In 1992, one of the worst examples of overfishing occurred in Newfoundland, Canada
where overfishing and poor management caused the collapse of the entire fishery in one year
leading to the loss of 35,000 jobs when Atlantic cod did not return at the beginning of the next
fishing season (Lerner & Lerner, 2009). The story prompted news coverage and a book, entitled
Cod (Kurlansky, 1998). Pacific cod (Gadus macrocephalus) began being fished heavily as a
hopeful replacement for Atlantic cod after collapse of the fishery (Browning & Cole, 1980).
In 2006, the FAO reported that 80 percent of the world’s fisheries were threatened by
overfishing. More than 25% of the world’s fish stocks were overexploited or depleted, and
more than half of the total fish stocks were exploited. The same report estimates that at least
90% of the world’s largest predatory fishes, such as the oldest tuna and swordfishes, are no
longer in existence (Kourous, 2006; Lerner & Lerner, 2009). Industrialized fisheries have been
shown to reduce community biomass by 80% within 15 years of exploitation. Myers and Worm

estimate large predatory fish biomass today to be about 10% of pre-industrial levels (Myers &
Worm, 2003).
Despite the abundance of fish and species found in the North Pacific, there are only a
few of commercial importance to United States fishermen. Americans eat little seafood
compared to the rest of the world at 17 pounds per head compared to Britain at 44; Canada,
52; Spain, 97; and Japan, 128 (Clover, 2008). The 20 or so fishes taken from the 100 or so
trawlable fishes is all the market traditionally keeps for human consumption or industrial uses
in American and Canadian markets. The ‘Americanization’ of the Bering Sea and North Pacific
lead to a change in fisheries from single species to multi-species, also leading to increased
discards in the American fisheries in those areas (Larson et al., 1998).
For example, American caught hake has no appeal to consumers in the United States;
but they will buy the same fish imported under the name ‘whiting.’ However, other countries in
the world regard hake highly as food (Browning & Cole, 1980). While “whiting” is a name
carelessly given to several fish species on the market, sometimes even pollock, the name
actually belongs to a croaker of the genus Menticirrhus found in the Atlantic (Browning & Cole,
1980).
Another example or creative fish labeling is a fish commonly used historically. During
World War II, when meat and meat products were hard to come by, Americans consumed
millions of pounds of shark, sold to them under a variety of names including: swordfish, sea
bass, grayfish, fillet of sole, cod, and halibut. The fillets and steaks were solid, flaky, and could
be baked, broiled, or fried. Shark was good food for Americans then, and still is; however,

today, the average American and Canadian will not eat shark. Only gourmet foodies and a few
ethnic groups dine on shark species (Browning & Cole, 1980).
This ease of catch followed by consumer demand for several generations created by
availability of fish resources has led to many unwanted fishes without a market to be thrown
away. When a fisher brings fish aboard, there are two kinds of fish in the net: ones with an
existing market and buyer or bycatch of no value to the fishers or the market. For fishers to be
encouraged to utilize bycatch a market must be created for those species considered bycatch,
and fishers must have access to buyers who want that species. ‘Some fish taken incidentally as
bycatch are not profitable to retain – simply put, no one wants to buy small flatfish, sculpins, or
some other fish – so they are discarded back to sea’ (Benton, 2002). The market also ensures
that it is in the fisher’s best interest to maximize the value of fishes being kept in their hold due
to limited space, often leading to high-grading, even within target species. Therefore, to make
fishers keep sculpins, the market value of sculpins would have to be as high as or higher than
the target species.
Bycatch. In 1996, Congress amended the Magnuson Fishery Conservation and
Management Act (MSFCMA) to define the term ‘bycatch.’ Bycatch is defined by the MSFCMA as
‘fish which are harvested in a fishery, but which are not sold or kept for personal use, and
includes economic discards and regulatory discards. The term does not include fish released
alive under a recreational catch and release fishery management program’ (Larson et al., 1998)
‘Economic discards’ is also defined in the MSFCMA as ‘fish which are the target of a fishery but
which are not retained because of an undesirable size, sex, or quality, or other economic
reason;’ (Larson et al., 1998) and ‘regulatory discards’ is defined as ‘fish harvested in a fishery

which fishermen are required by regulation to discard whenever caught, or are required by
regulation to retain but not sell’ (Larson et al., 1998).
Approximately twenty million tons of fish food are lost to bycatch every year (Cooper,
2006; Lerner & Lerner, 2009). The FAO estimates bycatch of fish alone, not including marine
mammals; birds or turtles, to total 20 million tons, about a quarter of the annual marine catch;
and the total of discards and unintentionally caught species totaled about 28 million tons in
1994 (McGinn, 1998). While a great deal of success has been made in the avoidance of bycatch
of turtles, mammals, birds and prohibited species; very little has been done with regard to fish
no one cares about due to a lack of market.
Aboard factory commercial fishing vessels in Alaskan waters, fish are dumped from a
codend, or net, into tanks, called ‘live tanks,’ where they are allowed to age for between 2 and
8 hour with 6 hours being the average. Different aged pollock meat is used to make variable
products. While some sculpin have been shown to live outside of water for up to 2 hours, the
damage and trauma received from being in a tank for that length of time means most, if not all,
sculpin are dead by the time they reach the sorting belt. Other less hardy fishes do not tend to
fair as well as sculpin species (Vandever, 2005). When aged fishes enter the sorting belt, a
human processor sorts the fishes to make assorted products. The processor also removes any
fish that is not marketable (bycatch) and either throws it on chute directly overboard or puts it
on a second conveyer belt leading overboard (Vandever, 2005).
Alternatively, if more caught fish were consumed by humans perhaps less of any one
fish would have to be caught. By fishing for other fishes, pressure could be taken off of
overfished populations, possibly allowing them to recover. Because fishing stocks are dynamic,

adding another fishery could decrease pressure to help alleviate the problem of fishing down
the food chain. Because the fishing industry is market driven, some non-profit organizations
have started publishing guides to urge consumers to make smart decisions before purchasing
fishes. Hopefully, by discouraging consumption of fishes caught with significant bycatch or in
poorly managed fisheries, these organizations can influence the industry and its managers to
make better decisions about sustaining fisheries (Lerner & Lerner, 2009). These same
organizations could be the leaders to turn bycatch into catch. Instead of throwing back sculpins,
they could lead a drive to keep them and market them.
When there is little information on bycatch of no economic value mortality is often
justified because it contributes to the overall benefit received by efficiently harvesting desired
species, such as pollock or Pacific cod. Public perception and the market has resulted in bycatch
being treated as though it is biologically different from targeted species despite scientists and
ecologists teaching that all species, whether targeted or bycatch, should be treated equally
(Rawson, 1997). There is a great deal of evidence showing that fishing down the food chain
causes many impacts in the oceans as a whole. However, because the public cannot see the
bottom of oceans and ecosystems, no one knows what exactly we are doing to ecosystems;
therefore, we need to take into account not just what we are doing to the catch and bycatch,
but what we are doing to the ecosystem as a whole (Rawson, 1997).
A potential solution to the issue of bycatch is to create a market for usable fishes.
Instead of throwing bycatch away as waste, fishes could be sent to market to help alleviate
some of the demand for fish protein. Because of the heterogeneity of fish as a product within
the market, there is a great deal of room for fishes that may not have been marketed

previously. Many merchants choose fresh fish themselves to pick quality and variety best
serving their purposes (Graddy, 2006). “The buyers [at Fulton Fish Market in Manhattan, New
York] would take a sample, look at the color, rub the sample between their fingers to determine
oiliness and taste it.” Buyers are interested in different varieties of high-quality fish for a
restaurant or retail shop (Graddy, 2006).
Fish are a differentiated product. At fish markets, within each variety of fish, it is
separated into large fish, small fish, fresh fish, and older fish. Some of the fish has even been at
market for longer than it should (Graddy, 2006). This heterogeneity of fish explains why fish
markets continue to survive, while other methods of supplying goods have become
decentralized (Graddy, 2006). Fish are more perishable, supply is unpredictable, and individual
fish are more differentiated within themselves than most other agricultural products (Graddy,
2006). Each purchaser of fish looks for something specific to their need.
Diversity in the Human Fish Supply. North Americans are selective about fishes they buy
and eat; therefore, marketing in Eastern cultures first could create an export market. With
nearly half of all fish caught today traded internationally, distant markets and foreign
economies play a large role in the depletion of world fisheries. Due to overfishing in Northern,
temperate waters, many previously self-sustainable countries, including the United States, now
must turn to developing countries where nearly 85% of internationally traded fish products
originate (McGinn, 1998). This also means that foreign markets are probably the better place to
attempt to market bycatch, such as sculpin. Asian cultures buy fish often rejected by Western
cultures. Therefore, many Asian cultures would be more likely to buy sculpin if put on the

market; and with globalization, North America and Europe would potentially catch on to the
trend of sculpin for dinner.
Currently, most of Alaska’s fishers, are concerned less by fish species desired in Seattle
and the rest of North American than those species desired by Asia. For decades, Japan was the
world’s largest and most demanding market for many kinds of seafood. Japanese companies
have led the way in developing technologies for shipping seafood around the globe. In 1970s,
they began shipping Canadian Bluefin tuna; and developed ‘superfreezing’ with turns a half ton
tuna into sashimi with a shelf life of 2 years (Freidberg, 2009).
Japanese markets have recently begun to be overshadowed by developing markets in China as
younger generations develop a taste for varieties of fish traditionally scorned in their country
because of tough, oily flesh. “They don’t know what the taste is, but if it says in the magazines
that it is expensive, that it’s good stuff – they will go for it. They can pay for it” (Freidberg, pp.
16 2009). Traditionally, uncooked fish was considered unwholesome and inappropriate for
social occasions in China. Those beliefs have changed drastically with globalization (Freidberg,
2009).
Wild-caught fish costs more in China and Japan because it is considered cleaner, more
natural, and stronger (Freidberg, 2009). However, Japanese culture and Chinese culture look for
very different things when purchasing fish. Japanese sushi bars assess quality of the meat in
pieces: looking especially at color, texture, and cut of pieces, but Chinese buyers and consumers
want fish whole and, usually, swimming. Chinese diners like the head and tail, not only because
they believe it tastes good; but because in their culture it symbolizes completeness of the meal.
They often like to observe the fish swimming because it shows the fish as full of vitality (Chi).

Ability to have fresh (live) fish in China symbolizes wealth and well-being. In the United States,
larger markets for live sea food are found alongside large Chinese populations (Freidberg,
2009). It is also relatively easy to sell fish byproducts to Asia (International Seafood Byproduct
Conference & Bechtel, 2003). In Asia, due to high bycatch/multispecies fisheries many fish
products have been developed to utilize as much as possible: dry/salted fish, fish jelly,
fermented products, fish crackers, and fish meal.
Sculpin as a Possible Human Fish Supply. An example of one such fish resource that is
currently not being used and that could easily have a market developed for it is sculpin caught
in the Bering Sea, Alaska. Sculpin is listed as ‘other groundfish,’ and is usually not targeted.
Because most sculpin species originate in the Pacific Ocean and occupy the Bering Sea and Gulf
of Alaska, a commercial fishery developed for sculpin would have to be done by U.S. or Polish
fishers in the Bering Sea Aleutian Island (BSAI) or Gulf of Alaska (GOA) area; and because most
vessels in the BSAI fish more than one species, adding another species to process would not be
overly difficult. Sculpins are currently only taken as bycatch in the Gulf of Alaska and Bering Sea,
and the NMFS predicts future catch of sculpins will remain dependent on distribution of
targeted species, rather than be targeted itself (Cheung et al., 2005).
Because the historical ‘ease of catch’ is not there, recreational sculpin fishermen often
complain about difficulty in finding and catching sculpin. Possibly, that is why they have not
developed as a common diet historically. Availability followed by generation after generation of
fishers has led to the market that we know now. Had sculpin not spent most of its life in areas
that were once difficult for fishers to utilize, we would see sculpin on our dinner tables instead
of pollock. Often many fishes get caught, but have little value to trawl fishermen. For example,

sturgeon (usually the Green sturgeon) brings a good price but is caught rarely and not in
abundance when caught making it not worthwhile economically to target (Browning & Cole,
1980).
The North Pacific Ocean and Bering Sea are the most productive fishery regions in the
world, and the “Americanization” of the area has led to dramatic shifts in the composition of
American fishing fleets and species it targets: changing from traditional single species fisheries
to multiple species groundfish fisheries. This frequently occurs because many ground fishes
exist in the same areas, feed on the same prey and provide food to the same predators and
fishing gear is not selective. Many fishes are thrown away because technical and market
conditions dictate that only certain sized fish and species of fish can be kept and processed
(Larson, House, & Terry, 1998).

Chapter III: Fisheries Bycatch as a Potential Food Source
The act of commercial fishing and the use of fishes in human diets has been a social
issue for many generations in North America and the world. As the demand for fish on the
dinner table increases, the strain is felt in many of the world’s fisheries. This impact is made
more dramatic by policies allowing and, in many cases, mandating the waste of unwanted and
unmarketable fishes. However, within many of those ‘unwanted’ fishes there is potential for a
future food supply. The use of waste fish could help alleviate social issues from lack of protein
sources and environmental issues from biodiversity decreases.
Fish has been eaten by many cultures throughout history. For example, Pacific salmon
have been an important food source throughout the Bering Sea and became a large commercial
fishery in the early 1900s (Aydin & Mueter, 2007). In fact, for many years, the most important
product from the Pacific Northwest fisheries was salmon. However, competition and unsound
practices, such as stringing traps and nets across river mouths characterized the Pacific
Northwest commercial fishery from the beginning quickly leading to overfishing (Schwantes,
1996).
The Spanish also found North Pacific fishes to suit their tastes. Hake has always been a
mainstay of traditional Spanish cooking (Clover, 2008). However, the big increase in the
development of a fishery for Pacific hake occurred when Soviet fishermen began to concentrate
on species, other than pollock, with little visual appeal that could be taken in great quantities
off of the Washington coast and south of the Columbia River in the United States. Despite the
use of many types of fishes from the North Pacific Ocean, historically forage fishes are generally

not targeted by commercial fisheries. A few smaller fishes have been targeted, but fisheries
have not developed (Reuter et al., 2010).
The evidence of fish in human diets is thought to extend back to some of the first
coastal civilizations, many of which developed tools, such as spears and traps to aid in capture.
As civilization and technology advanced, human ability to capture larger amounts of fishes has
grown exponentially. As a result, evidences of eating different types of fish and creativity in use
of fish proteins and marketing have also grown quickly.
Modern societies continue to search for fish proteins, as demonstrated by the fairly
recent surge of interest in tilapia. In 20 years, tilapia production has tripled from 2 billion to 6
billion pounds annually (Greenberg, 2010). It was expected to grow another 10% by the end of
2010 and continue growing, with HQ Sustainable Maritime Industries, a tilapia grower with
major production in China, concluding successful negotiations with a major fast food chain to
use tilapia on its sandwiches (Greenberg, 2010). The increased consumption of tilapia has been
in part due to seafood awareness campaigns and health and safety organizations stressing the
benefits of tilapia because it is a vegetarian farm-raised freshwater fish. It has also been a large
result of tilapia’s mild flavor.
Cod originally made up fish fillets and fish sticks. However, after being nearly depleted,
they have been replaced by haddock, then redfish, and, now, Pacific walleye pollock (Barns et
al., 2005). Most of Gorton’s fish products, including fillets and sticks, are minced pollock, unless
specified on the package. Gorton’s publishes all ingredients online along with their personal
mission statement about sustainability and ‘going green’ at www.gortons.com. McDonald’s fish
filets are made up of Alaska walleye pollock or hoki from New Zealand: pollock is used 90% in

each of the 275 million fish sandwiches McDonald’s sells each year (Clover, 2008). It is filleted,
not the minced fish that lower grade processed white fish in fish sticks and breaded shaped fish
are made up of. Minced fish, like Gorton’s sometimes has a superior taste due to the higher fat
content.
Americans prefer fish to not be too fishy tasting, while Europeans prefer a fishier tasting
fillet. Therefore, fish in the American market has ‘fat lines’ (the lateral lines of darker-colored
meat), taken out, also improving freezer life because fat lines can go rancid even when frozen.
Fish fillets, such as the Filet-O-Fish from McDonald’s, for the American market are instead
‘deep-skin fillets’ because they are skinned to leave just the white flesh, (Clover, 2008;
International Seafood Byproduct Conference & Bechtel, 2003); however, consumer studies
show children prefer fish sticks made from mince rather than whole fish fillets (International
Seafood Byproduct Conference & Bechtel, 2003).
Many diverse products can be and are prepared from mince, including: fish chips,
frankfurters, fish balls with sesame, noodles with 20% fish filling, and ravioli filling. Mince can
be prepared with many different species of fish and the majority of consumers are unable to
detect a difference. Hydrogen peroxide can also be used to whiten fish mince with coloring
deemed unappealing to consumers. The hydrogen peroxide leaves little or no residue and is
considered perfectly safe to consume (International Seafood Byproduct Conference & Bechtel,
2003).
With population increasing rapidly demand on food sources is a much discussed topic. If
a market for bycatch could not be created in North America or Asia, it could have a future in
developing countries because other countries are hungrier and less picky (Browning & Cole,

1980). Lower quality preserved fish could be the key to food scarcity in many developing
countries, such as Senegal, where 8.8 million people rely on fish for about 75% of their diet
(McGinn, 1998). Similarly, low-quality fish remains the staple low cost food source in many
developing countries, such as Bangladesh, where 50% of their diet comes from small (less than
25 centimeters) fishes caught in flood plains and inland waters and eaten whole giving 90% of
needed vitamin E and 15 – 30% calcium and iron needed daily (McGinn, 1998).
Fish represent about sixteen percent of protein in the human diet (Lerner & Lerner,
2009), and this percentage is higher in underdeveloped countries. According to the United
Nation’s Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), in Asia, about thirty percent of animal
protein consumed comes from fishes; in Africa, about twenty percent; and in Latin America,
about eight percent (Lerner & Lerner, 2009).
Eating fish has always been and continues to be very fashionable. Even many
vegetarians add fish to their diet to gain needed protein (Clover, 2008). Globally, consumer
demand for fish continues to climb annually. Developed countries imported 33 million tons of
fish worth $61 billion U.S. in 2004 (Kourous, 2006). Seafoods have traditionally been used
Figure 1: North Pacific Ocean areas critical to the United States
fishing supplies

because they contain a variety
of textures, flavors, and colors.

Present and Future Fish
Supplies in North America. The
Bering Sea consists of a deep

central basin surrounded by continental shelves along the coasts of Alaska, United States, and
Kamchatka, Russia. The 2 shelf ecosystems, created by the climate and geographical
characteristics of the area, within this region have been defined as large marine ecosystems:
the eastern Bering Sea (EBS) and western Bering Sea (WBS) (Aydin & Mueter, 2007). The Bering
Sea straddles a major Arctic/sub-Arctic atmosphere front and is, therefore, influenced by both
Arctic and sub-Arctic weather patterns (Aydin & Mueter, 2007). The Bering Sea shelves have
some of the highest concentrations of nitrate, phosphate, and silicate in the world (Aydin &
Mueter, 2007) due to what has been called the global ocean ‘conveyor belt’ (Aydin & Mueter,
2007).
The seasonal advance and retreat of ice and resulting temperatures strongly influence
the trophic ecology of the Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska by influencing primary production that
is believed to concentrate along the shelf where concentrations of nutrients can be found
(Aydin & Mueter, 2007). Total phytoplankton production as a result of nutrient rich waters are
thought to extend past 175 to 275 g C m-2 yr -1 and are a mix of large diatoms and
microplankton (Aydin & Mueter, 2007). Krill (Euphausiids) are a major prey for many upper
trophic level species in the Bering Sea, including sculpin; juvenile and adult pollock; other
forage and predatory fishes; and birds because krill tends to be less variable than copepods and
provide a more sustained food source throughout the summer, fall and winter. The abundance
of primary producers and primary consumers has provided an opportunity for the evolution of
many different fish species as well, allowing for perhaps the most complex food systems of any
ocean.

Production in the Bering Sea is greatly dependent upon timing of the ice retreat from
shelf areas every year (Aydin & Mueter, 2007). Melting ice stratifies the water column forming
a shallow layer of low salinity water on top. The ice melt must occur at a perfect time when
sufficient sunlight is available to primary producers and storms have subsided for the season to
ensure maximum productivity, making the Bering Sea ecosystem fairly fragile (Aydin & Mueter,
2007). It also means that the climate plays an important role in the overall health of the Bering
Sea ecosystem, and global climate change may cause drastic impacts on the overall productivity
of the Bering Sea.
In addition to climatic effects, due to an early discovery of the productivity in the Bering
Sea, the area has received documented anthropogenic pressure for at least 200 years (Aydin &
Mueter, 2007). Consequently, historically, the marine fishes, seabirds, and marine mammals
have all shown changes in habitat patterns and predator-prey interactions. As fishing pressure
has increased, sizes and numbers of targeted fish have often decreased while bycatch has
increased.
Fishing in the Bering Sea. In general, the eastern Bering Sea has been dominated by
walleye pollock since the early 1980s and the western Bering Sea has been dominated by
cephalopods and small forage fishes. The walleye pollock is an important mid-level predator
and prey to numerous predators, including humans. Like many fishes, they are also
cannibalistic. The eastern Bering Sea has a much higher production of small flatfish and
commercial crabs than the western part (Aydin & Mueter, 2007).
There are about 20 families of fin fishes in the North Pacific, including 50 species of fish
found between the surface and mid-water and 55 species of rockfish, 20 species of flatfish

(flounders and sole), and many other bottom dwellers inhabiting the area lower than midwater. These include the members of the classification of sculpin (Browning & Cole, 1980). The
predator population in the eastern section of the Bering Sea is made up of large flatfish and
other species existing above the bottom but lower than the middle of the water column,
including sculpins, rockfish (Sebastidae), and sablefish (Anoplopoma fimbria) (Aydin & Mueter,
2007).
The rapid growth of the Bering Sea fishing industry over a relatively short period was
greatly influenced by the Fishery Conservation and Management Act (FCMA) of 1976 when the
U.S. extended political jurisdiction over oceans to 200 nautical miles, the Exclusive Economic
Zone (EEZ), and began developing a domestic fishery focusing on this 200 nautical mile area
(Mansfield, 2004). Until then, the pollock fishery was dominated by Japanese fishers, who
initiated it in the 1960s, using their new technology of factory trawlers (International Seafood
Byproduct Conference & Bechtel, 2003; Mansfield, 2004). Once the U.S. extended jurisdiction
over Bering Sea waters, ‘Americanization’ of the fishery began to phase out Japanese fishing
vessels and developed a U.S. industry to replace it (Mansfield, 2004). Unlike Japan, who lost
free access to the world’s oceans, the creation of the EEZ gave the United States exclusive
access to one of the world’s largest fisheries (Ludicello, Weber, & Wieland, 1999).
The enactment of the EEZ and FCMA cut catches of dominant species of groundfish by
Eastern Asians and gave the American fishing fleet incentives to seek fish that, until then, had
been fished mostly by the Soviet Union, Japan, and South Korea. The U.S. and Russia quickly
made pollock a target fish in the Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska.

Commercial fishing is and has been a significant economic activity in the United States
Pacific Northwest historically. The annual income for marine sources in the Pacific Northwest
region regularly exceeds 300 million dollars, and it is a large employer both directly and
indirectly (Lambert, 1998). Alaskan fisheries are also an important source of food for much of
the United States and world: about half of the total U.S. fish catch each year comes from
Alaska. In 2001, fish catch off of Alaska was over 1,834,000 metric tons for groundfish, and 93%
of that was processed causing the fishery to be valued at over $1 billion per year (Benton,
2002). Today, many coastal communities are supported by commercial fisheries, and they are
the largest private employer in Alaska (Fishing Industry (Commercial), 1999).
The commercial fishery for groundfish in Alaska is reported to have begun in 1864 when
the fishing vessel, Alert, sailed from San Francisco to Alaska and harvested 9 tons of Pacific cod
in Bristol Bay. A large commercial sailing fleet continued to target cod for decades as the fishery
for sablefish and Pacific halibut developed in the early 1900s (Barns et al., 2005). In the 1930s,
Japanese fishing fleets began exploiting pollock and flatfish, stopping during World War II and
picking back up in the mid-1950s, targeting yellowfin sole. Through the 1960s, Japan and the
U.S.S.R. fished with little competition (Barns et al., 2005).
In the Pacific Ocean, large commercial fisheries for yellowfin sole (Limanda aspera) and
other flatfishes on the shelf, as well as, the Pacific ocean perch (Sebastes alutus) and other
rockfishes did not begin until the late 1950s with a peak in the mid-1960s. However,
zooarchaeological records suggest that rockfishes have been opportunistically fished in the
Puget Sound region of the United States for over 1500 years (Williams, Levin, & Palsson, 2010).
Rockfishes of various species have been marketed as red snapper for many decades. Despite

the United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) tightening regulations governing
nomenclature of marketed fishes, misnomers still happen regularly (Browning & Cole, 1980),
whether purposeful deception or accidental mislabeling.
Scandinavian countries have harvested Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) for centuries,
taking advantage of ‘unlimited’ quantities available close to shores. Fishers in these countries
had good boats and skill, but lacked ways to preserve fish: Salting and drying were the only
methods available for longer storage. The first recorded United States west coast fishery
producing salt cod was developed in San Francisco Bay area (Shields, 2001). Salted cod was
served with boiled potatoes and cream sauce, and the immigrants in San Francisco, largely
Spanish or Italian, were schooled in the preparation from an early age as it had been a cultural
favorite for generations (Shields, 2001).
Many flatfishes, most frequently called flounders or sole in the market, from the Bering
Sea remain underutilized because Pacific halibut bycatch quotas are a limiting factor; therefore,
they also represent an untapped resource and could potentially be used as a commercial
fishery (International Seafood Byproduct Conference & Bechtel, 2003). This could alleviate
some loss due to pollock abundance decreases that have been occurring since 1989, due to low
recruitment causing it to be considered fully utilized (International Seafood Byproduct
Conference & Bechtel, 2003). Due to overfishing and bycatch issues, in addition to many other
reasons, the list of Pacific fishes favored by Americans and Canadians should be lengthened to
take in more species living in the Pacific Rim. Currently, these fishes are termed bycatch and
treated as waste. However, with a market these species, including members of the sculpin

group, would become another option of fish to order at a restaurant, supermarket, or local fish
market.
Sculpin in the North Pacific. Sculpin are a group of fishes belonging to order
Scorpaeniformes, suborder Cottoidei and superfamily Cottoidea that contains 11 families, 149
genera, and 756 species. These are numbers expected to change as more genetic work is
performed (“What is a Sculpin?,” n.d.). Representatives of sculpins exist in all of the world’s
oceans, except the Indian Ocean. However, the North Pacific Ocean has been identified as the
center of origin and diversity.
Sculpins vary in color from brick red, green, brown, or yellow and are usually striped or
mottled. Their coloring is largely due to variations in habitat and offers the ability to blend in
with surroundings to hunt prey. They live on mud, sand, or pebbles. Their bodies are
compressed and frequently covered with bumps. They also possess an array of spines on the
head and dorsal fins. Many sculpins carry toxins in their spines that can cause skin irritation,
sweating, nausea, or dizziness similar to that of many catfish species. They are a group of
relatively small, benthic-dwelling, highly predatory teleost (bony fishes) containing many
species. Sculpins are almost always cold-water fish, preferring water with temperatures lower
than 55 - 60° Fahrenheit, but can survive temperatures close to freezing due to an antifreeze
chemical found in their blood (Patel & Graether, 2010). They usually swim slowly with an
undulating motion, and use very ornate pectoral fins comparable to a bat’s wing. Sculpins are
highly predatory eating almost anything that will fit in its mouth; therefore, recreational fishers
have found sculpins are easily caught off of piers and along rocky shores because they will bite
on almost any bait and are often caught more than once.

In the Bering Sea/ Aleutian Islands (BSAI), as well as the Gulf of Alaska (GOA), Sculpins
belong to Families Cottidae, Hemitripteridae, Psychrolutidae, and Rhamphocottidae, including
about 46 species (Ormseth & TenBrink, 2010a, 2010b). In U.S.-Japanese trawl surveys 41
species of sculpin were identified in the Eastern Bering Sea (EBS) and 22 species were identified
in the Aleutian Island (AI) region (Ormseth & TenBrink, 2010a) making them one of the most
abundant groupings in the North Pacific Ocean.
Depth range and distribution has been recorded for some sculpin species since 1982,
especially by Russian scientists; and length frequency information has been collected since
2000 for larger sculpin species (Reuter et al., 2010). However, recent data collected by U.S.
National Marine Fisheries Services – North Pacific Groundfish (NMFS – NPGOP) observers and
other studies have provided some much needed life history data on sculpins. This has occurred
in part because the Alaska Fisheries Science Center (AFSC) initiated a species identification
project due to a need for population data for non-commercial species, including sculpin, in
2002 (Reuter et al., 2010).
Most, possibly all, sculpins lay adhesive eggs in nests and show some parental care for
the eggs (Ormseth & TenBrink, 2010a). The sea raven (Hemitripterus villosis), closely related to
yellow Irish lord, was observed releasing eggs into crevices of rocky bottomed shallow waters in
Peter the Great Bay, Sea of Japan (Ormseth & TenBrink, 2010a). This type of reproduction may
make sculpins more susceptible to natural or anthropogenic environmental changes due to
their dependence on a very specific environment (Cheung et al., 2005; Ormseth & TenBrink,
2010a).

Because sculpin are not generally eaten by humans due to their toxic spines;
appearance; and boniness, they are not usually considered a species at risk (“What is a
Sculpin?,” n.d.). However, by using the scheme adopted by the American Fisheries Society (AFS)
for productivity as an inverse, estimations of vulnerability can be assessed for fishes (Cheung et
al., 2005). The scheme incorporates life history characteristics such as intrinsic rate of
population increase, longevity, age at first maturity, fecundity, and the von Bertalianffy growth
parameter (K), which can be used to determine vulnerability to extinction (Cheung et al., 2005).
Generally, species with larger body size, longer longevity, higher age at maturity, and lower
growth rate suggest higher vulnerability to extinction (Cheung et al., 2005). Many of the larger
sculpin species exhibit these characteristics, showing a potential of having high vulnerability to
extinction and making them poor candidates for a targeted fishery.
In addition, sculpin are at risk to environmental degradation because sculpin species
prefer specific environments which vary by species (“What is a Sculpin?,” n.d.). It should also be
noted that while it has been suggested that high fecundity would imply high productivity and,
thus, low extinction vulnerability, data does not support this relationship (Cheung et al., 2005).
Therefore, fecundity is not considered a good indicator. As far as sculpin research used in this
analysis, the fecundity
species examined

Figure 2: Codend (net) filled with about 120 mt of pollock
and bycatch species (sculpin).

for each
extends

from very low to

relatively

high depending on

the area

making an analysis

based on

fecundity difficult.

Despite having no directed fishery, sculpin are caught in a wide variety of fisheries: trawl
fisheries for yellowfin sole, Pacific cod, walleye pollock, Atka mackerel, and flathead sole. The
Pacific cod hook-and-line fishery and hook-and-line Halibut fishery catch the most sculpin.
Observers indicate retention rate of sculpin bycatch increased to 13% from the BSAI fishery and
18% in the GOA fishery in 2009 (Ormseth & TenBrink, 2010a, 2010b), most likely due to fish
meal increases. Fish meal is a product made by grinding whole fishes and fish parts to a thick
slurry then drying it. It is most often used for fertilizers and pet foods.
Policy. Today, Hong Kong merchants must import fishes from all across the South
Pacific, Anchorage, Johannesburg, and Boston because industrialization of Hong Kong has
greatly decreased natural populations of fish and polluted water ways making farming difficult.
Lamma Island in the village of Sai Kung offers up to 25 different kinds of live seafood, most of
which is foreign. Due to poor conditions, including chemicals like Malachite Green, farmed fish
in Hong Kong is deemed no good (Freidberg, 2009).
Some fisheries retain incidental catch as secondary catch. For example, in the Hawaii
longline fishery, vessels target swordfish or tuna, but also plan on catching other marketable
pelagic species (Benaka & Dobrzynski, 2004; Rawson, 1997). To benefit and address issues, the
NMFS’s position remains that requiring retention of all species caught will not eliminate
problems associated with bycatch in the BSAI fisheries. They state it is critical to account for all
catch: target catch, bycatch, and retained incidental catch, and provide restraints to solve
problems of excessive catch (Benaka & Dobrzynski, 2004; Burns & Kerr, 2008).
Due to management difficulties, New Zealand has a very ambitious regulatory program
for its fisheries, called the Quota Management System (QMS), which aids in bycatch

enforcement that is difficult to regulate because trawlers often catch 5 to 10 species at one
time, making a difficult quota range to predict. To address the issue, a tax is assessed on all fish
that fishers do not have a quota share for. The tax is set at a level to eliminate any incentive
(from the market) for fishers to catch non-target fish (Ludicello et al., 1999).
Fisheries in the Mediterranean are predominately ‘Artisanal fisheries,’ small capital
exploitations where fishers use their own property rather than big fishing companies controlling
most of the fishing. This usually means there are no long periods at sea, unlike the Bering Sea
fisheries where fishers can go several weeks without seeing land (Farrugio, Oliver, & Biagi,
1993). Because Mediterranean fisheries catches are made up of a large number of species,
there are many complications in management of the fishery (Stergiou, Machias, Somarakis, &
Kapantagakis, 2003). Complications are increased by the fact that fishes are diverse and
research is lacking in many of the systems (Caddy, 1993).
Most enforcement exists in the form of gear regulations causing a typical multi-species
multi-gear fishery to use more than 50 types of gear to catch 150 species of fish of commercial
interest (MatiAe-Skoko et al., 2011). Despite the use of multiple gear types, larger adult fishes,
including Scorpaenidae, run a high risk of being caught unless mesh sizes of nets are 80-100
mm, making the nets ineffective for smaller fishes that make up a large portion of the fishery.
Therefore, the ‘ideal’ mesh size is 40 mm with larger species caught as incidental bycatch and
making mesh size limits alone an ineffective management practice (Morales-Nin, 1993). Due to
the difficulty defining target species in the Mediterranean trawl fishery, management practices
heavily emphasize gear limitations. For example, the European Union (EU) enforces a minimum
stretched mesh size of 44 millimeters (MatiAe-Skoko et al., 2011; Stergiou et al., 2003).

The line between target species and incidentally caught species in tropical and
Mediterranean trawl fisheries is often much less clear than fisheries found in the North Sea,
Barents Sea, and Bering Sea because tropical and Mediterranean fisheries are characterized by
high species diversity in one location and many small species, whereas high-latitude trawl
fisheries, such as the Bering Sea pollock fishery, only a few species make up the major part of
landings (Stergiou et al., 2003).
In Nigeria, The Sea Fisheries (Fishing) Regulation of 1992, mandated 75% of landings
found in fisheries must be kept to account for the estimated 1.53 million tons of fish demand
found in Nigeria (Akande, 1998). The same policy prohibits dumping of anything at sea that is
edible or could be a marketable product. Because fishers are accustomed to the policy they
have created a method for sorting fish at sea by species, then size, making the job seamless,
and the resulting market has also allowed for many different products to be created (Akande,
1998).
The South China Sea has had similar policies because they are also considered a
multispecies fishery. Because 60 – 70% of species caught have a low market value or are
juveniles, a market was created for bycatch (lin, 1998). While much of this is used for
aquaculture and other animal feeds (fish meal products), many bycatch products are used for
direct human consumption or fish products, such as fish cakes, fish balls, or surimi products (lin,
1998)
Bycatch is predominately monitored in the Bering Sea because catch and discard of a
species in one fishery imposes an opportunity cost on other vessels in the industry that would
otherwise catch and market them. The Magnuson Stevens Fishery Conservation Act developed

the need to manage non-target species in the North Pacific. It requires annual catch limits to be
set for all species within a fishery (target and non-target species) in order to maintain healthy
stocks of both non-target and target species, as well as allowing for development of new
fisheries (Reuter et al. 2010).
In BSAI fisheries, there are five species referred to as ‘prohibited species’ within the
industry: herring, halibut, tanner crabs, king crabs, and salmon. These species are prohibited to
be caught by a pollock vessel or a Pacific cod vessel because they are commercially fished and
regulated by other groups (Rawson, 1997; T. Smith, 1996). Even though mortality rates for
discards of these fishes (and crabs) can be very high, their high value in other fisheries causes
retention to be prohibited due to policies in place to discourage targeting by groundfish fleets.
These species are often greatly avoided by fishers in the BSAI fisheries. However, there are
numerous other fishes not prohibited because they do not currently have a fishery and are,
therefore, often discounted.
In late 1996, the North Pacific Fishery Management Council passed an increased
retention and utilization requirement prohibiting discards of pollock and Pacific cod based on
size and mandated minimum ratios of product weight to catch weight of those species (Barrett,
1999; Larson et al., 1998). According to the NMFS, commercial fishers must minimize waste by
‘avoiding species they do not want or need, minimizing the number of unwanted species they
catch and keep, and fully utilizing everything they bring ashore’ (Barrett, 1999). However, in
trawling industries, bycatch cannot be completely avoided, and this mandate also did not
specifically address the issue of many kinds of bycatch, such as sculpin.

All ‘harvested’ species have been closely monitored since the loss of Pacific Ocean perch
populations, including cod, flatfishes, rockfishes, crabs, salmon, and Pacific herring (Clupea
pallasii) (Aydin & Mueter, 2007). One of big issues with bycatch management is allocation.
Sometimes the goal of bycatch reduction is to make sure one boat does not kill a fish so
another boat can (Rawson, 1997). In Alaska, there is no gear type that is excluded from bycatch
regulations: all bycatch is counted against a total quota and individual species quotas.
Therefore, fisheries can be closed down because of targeted fish or bycatch. Either way, the
boats have to stop fishing, making this an effective management practice and a well-managed
fishery (Rawson, 1997). For example, rockfishes in the Gulf of Alaska are divided into 4
assemblages for management purposes. Rockfishes are conservatively managed due to long life
spans and sensitivity to overexploitation.
Fisheries Management. Due to the frequency that sculpin catches occur, in 2010, the
North Pacific Fishery Management Council passed amendment 87 to the Magnuson-Stevenson
Act Gulf of Alaska Fishery Management Plan and Bering Sea/Aleutian Island Fishery
Management Plan separating the ‘other species’ complex into its make up species, and making
BSAI sculpins and GOA sculpins their own grouping with their own harvest specifications in each
zone.
Historically, sculpins have been managed as part of the BSAI or GOA ‘other species’
along with skates, sharks, and octopus (Ormseth & TenBrink, 2010a). Because sculpins are
extremely diverse, many scientists have suggested further separating ‘sculpin complex’ into
even smaller components because sculpin populations may react differently to natural and
anthropogenic stressors (Ormseth & TenBrink, 2010a, 2010b; Samuel Rauch III, 2011). The total

allowable catch (TAC) for sculpins in 2011 and 2012 is 5,200 metric tons, lower than in previous
years because they have been deemed easily avoidable. The ABC was determined to be 43,700
metric tons for both years (Samuel Rauch III, 2011).
The sculpin complex biomass is healthy with a current estimate of 208,181 metric tons
for the Bering Sea and 7,328 metric tons for the Gulf of Alaska, though the number changes as
real time survey data becomes available. The biomass is based on the 6 most abundant sculpins
in the GOA and BSAI: bigmouth, great, plain, threaded, warty, and yellow Irish lord (Ormseth &
TenBrink, 2010a, 2010b). Total sculpin biomass in the BSAI for 2010 was estimated at 207,658
metric tons, down from 239,174 metric tons in 2004 (Ormseth & TenBrink, 2010a). Despite a
dominance on the continental shelf by these 6 species, there are also many smaller species
frequently caught; and the continental slope is dominated by smaller sculpin species, such as
the darkfin sculpin (Malacocottus zonurus), though it does not make up a significant portion of
the biomass estimate (Reuter et al., 2010). The United States National Marine Fisheries Services
(NMFS) has determined neither the GOA nor BSAI populations of sculpin to be in danger of
being overfished, and sculpin diversity remains high in all areas of the GOA, Eastern Bering Sea,
and Aleutian Islands.
Observers from the BSAI North Pacific Groundfish Observer Program (NPGOP) began
identifying sculpins to genus level in commercial catches starting about 2007, and the NMFS has
started focusing on species from the genera Myoxocephalus, Hemitripterus, and Hemilepidotus,
the largest sculpin genera in the Bering Sea and representing 90% of all sculpin catch according
to observers (Ormseth & TenBrink, 2010a).

Some small sculpin species, such as the threaded sculpin, occur in great abundance and
are relatively short lived; therefore, they may make up and important part of the biomass
resource in its ecosystem due to its abundance and role as both prey and competitive predator
(Hoff, 2000). The ecological importance of many such sculpin species is not understood (Hoff,
2000). Therefore, some species of sculpin would be better to target as a fishery, such as yellow
Irish lord.
Ecology of Sculpin. Sculpin have been researched by Russian scientist since the 1960s,
however, much of what is known about the life histories of sculpin has been discovered
relatively recently as a result of information collected by the NMFS North Pacific Groundfish
Observer program and several Japanese-American survey cruises. With the implementation of a
more ecosystem based management program in the Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska, scientists
have recognized the need to understand more about the species previously thought of as
waste. However, there remain many holes in the understanding of several sculpin species and
their life histories and ecology.
Musick et al. suggests species with specialized habitat requirements, such as those
breeding in rocky crevices, including sculpin, or those breeding in eel grass beds should be
considered threatened due to degradation and destruction of their habitats (Musick, 1999;
Musick et al., 2001). They also suggest that habitats of these species be closely monitored.
Because fish show a correlation between age/size and fecundity, research suggests using
fecundity at first maturation (Musick, 1999; Musick et al., 2001). According to Musick, despite
the fact that large species generally show more resilience to fishing due to higher fecundity, a
fish with high fecundity (≥104), but late maturation (5-10 years) and a long lifespan (≥30 years)

is considered in the ‘very low productivity’ category (Musick, 1999; Musick et al., 2001). He also
found that colder water resulted in slower growth, later maturity, and lower rates of population
increase even if comparing different populations of the same species; and he found species
with erratic and infrequent recruitment tended to have longer life spans (Musick, 1999). These
factors, common to sculpin species, result in lower resilience to mortality outside of natural
mortality. In addition, fishing has been shown to affect slow growing, late maturing species with
sporadic recruitment disproportionately (Williams et al., 2010), such as rockfish and,
potentially, sculpin.
There is little known about feeding habits of sculpin in the BSAI or GOA, especially in fall
and winter months (Ormseth & TenBrink, 2010b). However, limited dietary analysis indicates
larger sculpin members of the Eastern Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska prey on similar things:
shrimp, benthic invertebrates, and juvenile pollock (Hoff, 2000; Ormseth & TenBrink, 2010a).
Large sculpins found in the Aleutian Islands prey on crabs, Atka mackerel, and other small to
mid-sized shallow water fish: they have also been seen with full sized pollock partially digested
and/or regurgitated upon capture (Vandever, 2005). Smaller sculpin species feed
predominately on shrimp and benthic amphipods. In the Aleutian Islands, they also eat
infauna, consisting of polychaetes and benthic crustaceans. (Ormseth & TenBrink, 2010a)
The threaded sculpin (Gymnocanthus pistilliger), along with many other sculpin species,
have a diet that shifts from smaller invertebrates, to larger invertebrates, then to fishes as their
body size increases showing an ability to capture and digest larger prey (Hoff, 2000). This ability
prevents intraspecific competition and increases feeding efficiency (Hoff, 2000). It also means

sculpin are important as a mid-level predator by not only controlling populations through
predation in many trophic levels, but providing food in many different tropic levels.
Smaller sculpin species in the Gulf of Alaska provide important resources to larger
predators (Hoff, 2000). The yellow Irish lord has been shown to feed on different decapods off
of Kodiak Island, along the east coast of the Kamchatka (Tokranov, 1985). The main prey for
yellow Irish lords are snow crab (Chionoecetes opilio), hermit crab (Pagurus pubescens), and fish
eggs, mainly of other sculpin (Tokranov, 1985). However, like larger sculpin, they also have and
extremely diverse diet, including more than 120 members of different taxonomic groups
(Tokranov, 1985). Many small sculpins are fed upon by pinnipeds, Pacific cod, and small to midsized demersal fishes. The main source of mortality for smaller sculpins is from consumption by
eelpouts, wintering seals, and Alaska skate (Ormseth & TenBrink, 2010a). However, Pacific cod
and walleye pollock are also main predators of small sculpins (Hoff, 2000).
Sculpins share their ecosystem with many commercially important flatfish that use
shallow waters throughout the Gulf of Alaska and Bering Sea shelf for spawning and nursery
grounds causing sculpin diets to overlap diets of many flatfish species consisting of amphipods,
polychaetes, and Echrurus (Hoff, 2000). Because both flatfishes and sculpin show diverse
dietary patterns based on substrates, interspecies competition is frequently lessened despite
competition between species (Hoff, 2000).
Large sculpins are preyed on by Pacific halibut; however, the main predators of large
sculpins are Pacific cod. The

main

source of natural mortality for

large

sculpins remains unknown,

but most

Figure 3: Image of a Great Sculpin (Myoxocephalus
polyacanthocephalus) (“Great sculpin,” n.d.)

total mortality is from fishing vessels (Panchenko, 2002). The proportion of sculpin over 20 cm
long has been shown to decrease in stomach surveys of top sculpin predators due to increases
in spines and armor around that size (Panchenko, 2002). However, as sculpins become larger,
spine length decreases in relation to body size, causing their spines to be less daunting to
predators.
Representatives of the Most Abundant Sculpin Caught in the Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska.
Great Sculpin. Great sculpins (Myoxocephalus polyacanthocephalus) reach sexual
maturity between 5 and 8 years of age and have a life span of between 13 and 15 years of age,
a short period of sexual maturity compared to other groundfish (Ormseth & TenBrink, 2010a,
2010b; Tokranov, 1984, 1987a). In the Aleutian Islands they reach a maximum length of 76 cm,
82 cm in the Eastern Bering Sea, and 72 cm in the Gulf of Alaska (Ormseth & TenBrink, 2010a,
2010b), and they can weigh up to 8 kg (Tokranov, 1984). The maximum known age is 17 in the
BSAI (Ormseth & TenBrink, 2010a). The great sculpin has a fecundity of 48,000 to 415,000 eggs
in eastern Kamchatka waters (Ormseth & TenBrink, 2010a, 2010b; Tokranov, 1984, 1987b).
Tokranov (1984) found that fecundity in great sculpin species depends on weight, followed by
length, then age. The estimated biomass for 2010 of great sculpin in the BSAI is 50,820 metric
tons (Ormseth & TenBrink, 2010a); and the great sculpin, along with warty sculpin, are the most
abundant species found in the Eastern Bering Sea. Because the great sculpin is the most
common species of Family Cottidae in Kamchatka waters, it has been studied more than any
other species of sculpin.

Due to a large body size, longer life, and an older age at maturity the great sculpin
would be considered vulnerable to extinction and would not be a good target for a commercial
fishery. However, it could be a candidate for use when caught as bycatch due to its size.
Warty Sculpin. The warty sculpin (M. verrucosus) has a maximum length of 78 cm in the
Eastern Bering Sea, but the maximum length is
unknown for the Aleutian Islands area. It has a

Figure 4: Image of a Warty Sculpin (M.
verrucosus). (“Quarterly research reports for
Resource Ecology & Fisheries Management
Division, Apr-June 2009 - page 2,” n.d.)

maximum age estimated at 18 years; but it is
unknown at what age the warty sculpin reaches

sexual maturity (Ormseth & TenBrink, 2010a). The fecundity of this species is estimated to be
about 2700 eggs; and in 2010 it had an estimated biomass in the BSAI of 6,998 metric tons
(Ormseth & TenBrink, 2010a).
From the known information, the warty sculpin would also not make a good target for a
commercial fishery. It could potentially be used when caught as bycatch. However, due to the
extreme lack of data on the warty sculpin, much more research should be conducted before a
conclusion can be made.
Plain Sculpin. The plain sculpin (M. joak) can live
Figure 5: Image of a Plain Sculpin (M. joak)
(“Quarterly research reports for Resource Ecology
& Fisheries Management Division, Apr-June 2009 page 2,” n.d.)

up to 16 years and reaches sexual maturity at 5-8 years
(Ormseth & TenBrink, 2010a; Panchenko, 2001, 2002;
Tokranov, 1987a, 1988, 1995). They have an estimated
fecundity of 25,400 and 147,000 eggs (Panchenko, 2001;

Tokranov, 1987b). In the Eastern Bering Sea, the maximum length is 63 cm, and in the Gulf of

Alaska it has a maximum length of 59 cm (Ormseth & TenBrink, 2010a, 2010b). It has an
estimated biomass in the BSAI of 55,135 metric tons for 2010 (Ormseth & TenBrink, 2010a).
Due to size, longevity, and age of maturity, the plain sculpin would also be considered to
have a higher vulnerability to extinction and should not be targeted for a commercial fishery. It
is also extremely vulnerable due to its habitat preference. Panchenko (2001) discovered
clutches were often deposited on mussels (Mytilus trossulus) covered in brown alga (Dichloria
viridis), and were often guarded by a male of the species. The plain sculpin is one of the few
sculpin that have been observed exhibiting guarding behaviors.
Bigmouth Sculpin. The bigmouth sculpin (Hemitripterus bolini) reaches a length of 83 cm
in the Aleutian Islands, a length of 86 cm in the Gulf of Alaska, and a length of 78 cm in the
Eastern Bering Sea (Ormseth &

TenBrink,

2010a, 2010b). It has a maximum

known age

of 20 years, but there is little or no

data on

fecundity and age of maturity from

the BSAI or

GOA. However, the preliminary
data from the Gulf of Alaska

Figure 6: Image of a Bigmouth Sculpin
(Hemitripterus bolini) caught on a pollock
commercial fishing vessel

fecundity
averages

2283 eggs per female (Ormseth & TenBrink, 2010b). The bigmouth sculpin had an estimated
biomass of 36,461 metric tons for 2010 (Ormseth & TenBrink, 2010a, 2010b).
The bigmouth sculpin is one of the largest sculpin species. It also lives longer than many
other species. Because of this and the lack of fecundity and age of maturity data, it has the
potential to also be very vulnerable to extinction and should not be targeted as a commercial
fishery. However, like all of the other vulnerable species discussed, the bigmouth sculpin could

be a great candidate for marketing bycatch because of the large number caught and the size of
fish caught.
Yellow Irish Lord. The yellow Irish lord (Hemilepidontus jordani) accounts for the highest
proportion of sculpin biomass in the Aleutian Islands
and Gulf of Alaska. It has a maximum length of 65 cm
in the Aleutian Islands and 50 cm in the GOA. In the
Figure 7: Image of yellow Irish lord
(Hemilepidontus jordani)

Eastern Bering Sea its maximum length is also about
50 cm (Ormseth & TenBrink, 2010a, 2010b). Its

estimated total biomass in the BSAI is 36,785 metric tons (Ormseth & TenBrink, 2010a). The
yellow Irish lord has an estimated maximum age of 28 years and reaches sexual maturity at
about 3-5 years (Ormseth & TenBrink, 2010a, 2010b; Tokranov, 1985). The fecundity is
estimated between 52,000 and 389,000 eggs in the Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands and between
25,000 and 241, 000 in the Gulf of Alaska (Ormseth & TenBrink, 2010a, 2010b). However, there
is very little data on the age and growth maturity of GOA specific sculpin species; therefore, all
fecundity and maturity data used by the NMFS for Gulf of Alaska management is taken from
outside the GOA region (Hoff, 2000; Ormseth & TenBrink, 2010b).
The yellow Irish lord could be targeted for a commercial fishery in the Aleutian Islands
and Gulf of Alaska, in addition to many parts of the Bering Sea, because of its relatively low age
of sexual maturity, small size, and relatively high fecundity. Its high biomass also indicates that
populations are healthy, and they have a low vulnerability to extinction. In addition, Tokranov
(1985) found that in winter months in Kamchatka, yellow Irish lords form dense groups making
them easier to target for a trawl fishery.

Effects of Bycatch in the Fishing System. The North Pacific Ocean and Bering Sea are the
most productive fishery regions in the world, and the “Americanization” of the area has led to
dramatic shifts in the composition of American fishing fleets and species it targets: changing
from traditional single species fisheries to multiple species groundfish fisheries. This frequently
occurs because many ground fishes exist in the same areas, feed on the same prey and provide
food to the same predators and fishing gear is not selective. Many fishes are thrown away
because technical and market conditions dictate that only certain sized fish and species of fish
can be kept and processed (Larson, House, & Terry, 1998).
Defining what fishes are targeted, are considered to be incidentally caught bycatch, and
are discarded for trawl fisheries is important for fisheries management, especially with the
modern trend to focus on management practices using an ecosystem based approach rather
than single-species approaches common historically (Stergiou et al., 2003). The FAO estimates
25-30 million tons of fish are being discarded or wasted. This leads to a great deal of
controversy because many feel this fish should be used for fish meals and fish oils while others
believe we should actually process more of it for human consumption (International Seafood
Byproduct Conference & Bechtel, 2003). Minimizing bycatch has become an increasingly
important priority for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s National Marine
Fisheries Service (NMFS) over the past several years. In 2003, the NMFS even launched its
National Bycatch Strategy (NBS) (Benaka & Dobrzynski, 2004).
Most often bycatch is removed from the catch and returned to the ocean. Many fishes
do not survive being caught, sorted, emptied onto the deck, or pumped out of a seine (Barrett,
1999; Hill & Wassenberg, 1990; Jacquet & Pauly, 2007; McGinn, 1998). Hill and Wassenberg

(1990) estimated nearly 90 percent of animals died within 12 hours of being trawled. Often
their outer mucus coating or swim bladder is also damaged in the process (Barrett, 1999;
Jacquet & Pauly, 2007; McGinn, 1998). These fishes can become sick and die upon being
returned even if handled extremely gently. Bycatch are thrown back because they are the
wrong size, sex, or species or because trip limits or quotas have been met. The estimate of
landed catch often underestimates what is caught and the total amount of fishing related
mortality.
To obtain better data, many fisheries have been forced to carry onboard observers
trained to sample catch for size and age and to estimate bycatch and discards. By using lengthage tables, scientists can also estimate the number of discards in each age class (Cooper, 2006;
Rawson, 1997). To make estimates of discards throughout fleets, scientists assume unobserved
vessels and observed vessels behave similarly. Fishers, however, do not always report accurate
data as has been shown with the over reporting by China and other research projects.
Therefore, we do not know how much fish is being killed while at sea without the knowledge of
regulation makers. While the BSAI and GOA fisheries are heavily regulated; observed; and
enforced, observers are not always present and there is little concern on the part of fishers;
processors; and, even, observers and policy makers for many types of bycatch, including
sculpin.
In addition to the loss of fishes to bycatch, the fate of bycatch returned to the
ecosystem is cause for concern. When discarded, part of the waste sinks and part of it floats
for a while before beginning to sink (Hill & Wassenberg, 1990). Sinking discarded material
spends varying time in the water column.

Few studies have been done on the sinking/floating characteristics of fishery discards,
though there are observations and some anecdotal information stating most discarded waste
sinks. I, however, found in the Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska a great deal of the discharge floats
causing a trail leading out behind the vessel (Vandever, 2005), and Hill and Wassenberg (1987,
1990) found that nearly all discards in the prawn fishery in Moreton Bay, Australia, were eaten
by birds and dolphins on the surface and crabs and fish on the bottom. Floating waste is
generally made up of muscle, fat, and other tissue. Floating seafood processing discharge is
first available for surface scavengers, such as savaging sea birds, often seen following
processors.
The portion of birds in the Bering Sea feeding on discarded waste has not been
estimated. Utilization of discharge by marine mammals is also poorly researched. Despite the
lack of data on scavenging throughout the oceans, scavengers have been shown to use
discarded fishes and invertebrates as some part of their diet. Some scavengers may use fishery
discards as an exclusive food source. Increases in scavenging sea birds and other known
scavengers have been shown in many heavily fished areas. For example, one gull species in the
Mediterranean (Larus audouinii), has established colonies entirely dependent on fishery
discards (International Seafood Byproduct Conference & Bechtel, 2003), and many fishers have
stories of whales and dolphins that follow their vessels waiting for discharge and depredating
from fishing catch. In the Bering Sea there is anecdotal evidence of Orcas following trawlers and
research studies addressing Orca and sperm whales depredation (taking of catch) from longline
gear and eating discards from longline vessels.

The size of dumped material determines what scavengers use it (Hill & Wassenberg,
1990). The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) regulations in Alaska
mandate discharge to be ground to .5 inch, making it unsuitable for larger scavengers. It has
been agreed that the dumping of large amounts of discarded bycatch has great ecological
impact (Hill & Wassenberg, 1990). This fate of dumped seafood waste and discards is often
determined by individual vessel practices, waste characteristics, environmental characteristics,
and biological characteristics at the dumping site and/or fishing grounds. Oceanographic
features, such as temperature and currents, have a huge impact on how fast waste products,
including bycatch, are dispersed and degraded (International Seafood Byproduct Conference &
Bechtel, 2003); and faunal composition in the area where fishing waste is dumped greatly
determines who feeds on the waste, as does the time of day when discards are dumped (Hill &
Wassenberg, 1990).
The waste not eaten in the upper levels of the water column ends up on the bottom for
benthic scavengers, including some flatfishes and many sculpin species; however, the quantity
is difficult to determine. Studies in both the North Sea and Australia show about 50% of
discharged fishery waste sinks to the bottom and similar numbers are thought to exist
throughout most of the world’s oceans including the GOA and BSAI. (Bluhm & Bechtel, 2003)
Evidence has shown fishery discards allow populations to become larger than they would
otherwise (Link & Almeida, 2002). Benthic ecologists working in the Bering Sea list crabs,
shrimps, amphipods, sea stars, flatfish, gadoids (cod), and sculpin as the leading scavengers
benefiting from fishery waste, and while sampling, Link and Almeida (2002) observed scallop
viscera (noncalcareous remains from shucked scallops) in stomachs of fish species in heavily

fished areas, including the longhorn sculpin (Myoxocephalus octodecemspinosus) in
Massachusetts (United States). By examining stomachs of longhorn sculpins, they evaluated the
extent fishery discards provide food to fish populations. They found that while rock crabs (both
Cancer irroratus and C. borealis) and small crustaceans make up a large part of sculpin diets at
dredged stations of scallop fishing activity, the diet of longhorn sculpin was made up
predominately of scallop viscera. They also found when scallop remains were present; sculpins
consumed more food suggesting sculpins continue to feed on crabs and small crustaceans,
while opportunistically gorging on remains of scallops. (Link & Almeida, 2002)
Actually, little is known about scavenging taking place in the middle of the water column
because it is difficult to observe and quantify. However, it is thought to consist mainly of sharks.
In the Gulf of Alaska, fishery waste was found to contribute 12% of total shark stomach
contents, and Bering Sea discharge is thought to have a similar fate (International Seafood
Byproduct Conference & Bechtel, 2003). Many have also cited evidence of increase in shark
abundance in Alaskan waters since the 1990s as evidence of shark scavenging (International
Seafood Byproduct Conference & Bechtel, 2003).

Chapter IV: Analysis of Findings
Primary and secondary literature sources discussing history of commercial fishing, issues
with overfishing, and the need to use more of the food sources available and primary literature
analyzing ecological, biological, and anthropological issues surrounding commercial fishing in
the Bering Sea and policies throughout the world indicate that there are many problems with
the policies used to regulate bycatch in the Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska. Personal experience
aboard commercial fishing vessels in the Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska demonstrate a wasting
of bycatch species, including sculpin that could be, and possibly are, used for human
consumption. Further taste research over commonly caught sculpin species also indicates taste
preference is not a driving factor for the market not utilizing bycatch species.
Numerous indications of overfishing in all of the world’s oceans exist at a time when
allocation of many resources has caused a great deal of starvation in the many countries.
Difficulties feeding the world population will only increase as developing counties go through
population transitions leading to increased growth in many of the poorest countries. A ready
source of protein throughout the world is through fish and other seafoods. While many fish
resources are currently used, and over-utilized in many cases, many species are thrown away as
bycatch. Much of this bycatch has the potential to be used for human consumption. Sculpin,
despite having a look that is intimidating to American consumers, produces a white, flaky fillet,
comparable to rockfish, that is pleasing to residents of Washington State from different cultural
backgrounds.
The largest issue with bycatch is the complexity of the issue. Many groups consider the
discard of bycatch to be wasteful, but efforts to find productive uses for all bycatch have proven

to be unsuccessful (Rawson, 1997). Bycatch caught by a vessel is no longer available in the
ecosystem to be eaten by other predators or to eat other prey. However, many arguments have
been made, usually by fishers and stakeholders, that if all of a certain species was mandated to
be returned, it would still have a large impact on the environment and ecosystem because
more of that species would be around to eat or be eaten by other members of the ecosystem. If
a certain fish was required to always be returned even if dead, the carcass would provide more
food for scavengers and also change the ecosystem. This is especially a problem with midtrophic level eaters because their prey differs depending on age and size. For example, if the
bycatch species returned is a major sculpin predator of small sculpins or juveniles, it could
cause a decline in sculpin of one size and/or age; and once that sculpin population declined, the
predator could die out due to starvation (Barrett, 1999).
Despite the acknowledged issues with bycatch, the BSAI mid-water pollock fishery is
considered to be ‘clean’ compared to other groundfish fisheries because it has one of the
lowest bycatch rates in the region. However, discard rates in the Bering Sea pollock fishery in
recent years have been up to 50%, and overall discard rate was approximately 14% in 1995.
(Larson et al., 1998) Though discard rate is not high, total discards are high due to the amount
of fish caught in this fishery (Larson et al., 1998) causing the trawl fishery of the North Pacific to
produce more bycatch than any other fishery in the world. In 1995, 9 million tons of the 27
million tons caught were discarded. Discards of crabs and their prey accounted for a loss of $50
million dollars in the crab fishery, and combined losses in the Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska are
estimated at $250 million annually (McGinn, 1998). Trawl vessels often fish with a net (codend)
that can hold 120 metric tons of fish. If 1% of the fish in that codend is bycatch, then the vessel

caught about 1.2 metric tons of bycatch. Generally, in 24 hours 4 to 8 full codends are brought
aboard, giving between about 4.8 and 9.6 metric tons of bycatch a day for 1 vessel (Vandever,
2005). Often the net has much more bycatch than 1% and there are many vessels fishing
similarly greatly increasing the amount of bycatch obtained in the pollock fishing industry.
While many species of bycatch are caught, sculpin represent a large amount of that
bycatch. In 1992, total bycatch numbers for the BSAI was 585,152 metric tons, 1,227 of which
was listed as “other fish,” including sculpin (Larson et al., 1998). Sculpin has been estimated to
be about 30% of that, or about 368.1 metric tons (Larson et al., 1998). In 2007, the estimate
was also about 30%; however, it totaled 6500 metric tons by that time (Reuter et al., 2010).
Participant Observation. North Pacific Groundfish Observers frequently discuss bycatch
in the field, and a common species discussed are sculpin. Sculpin caught are generally large and
heavier than many other fishes caught, including targeted pollock (Vandever, 2005). Sculpin are
‘ugly’ and covered in bumps and spines (Vandever, 2005). If they are not dead, they bite and
make grunting noises; and sculpin have teeth on the roof of their mouth and bottom lip that
are small, but sharp, and will rip through the industry standard rubber fishing gloves quickly
making them thought of as a nuisance by all involved (Vandever, 2005).
Generally, sculpin are not liked by observers or fishers. However, observers also discuss
the large amount of fish waste that occurs when these species are thrown overboard
(Vandever, 2005). Frequently, the most discussed waste of fish is because ‘prohibited species’
such as salmon and halibut are thrown back dead; but many feel that something should be
done to minimize the amount of bycatch caught or at least use those fishes that are caught by
marketing them (Vandever, 2005).

Bycatch as a new food supply. Historically, fishes that were originally thought of as
bycatch have found their way to the dinner table as the market progressed. The Atlantic halibut
(Hippoglossus hippoglossus) has been a marketed and prized fish of the North Atlantic since the
middle ages. However, it was considered unpalatable in the early 1800s for many western
countries, including the United States, which have a considerably different palate than the rest
of the world (Jacquet & Pauly, 2007).
By the 1830s, tastes changed and a market for the Atlantic halibut developed, leading to
a large commercial fishery, especially in New England and Nova Scotia. Western Atlantic halibut
populations collapsed in less than 20 years and still have not recovered (Jacquet & Pauly, 2007).
Despite the success of the Atlantic halibut, the Pacific halibut (Hippoglossus stenolepis) did not
become popular until improved technology allowed it to be shipped from Seattle, Washington,
to the East coast of the United States (Browning & Cole, 1980). The fishery started in 1888 in
the Puget Sound around Port Townsend, Washington, near the mouth of the Strait of Juan de
Fuca. As stocks were depleted, boats sailed further and further looking for the fish. By the turn
of the century, about 20 years later, fishermen were forced to go to Alaska for halibut (Chasan,
1981). Most halibut was used as baitfish for cod in the 1920s (Shields, 2001).
Many fishes without markets have found small ones after bycatch was sold. The
sablefish (Anoplopoma fimbria) found a market after being incidentally caught on long line gear
and in pots. It is sometimes found in fresh markets and is mostly used by those of Scandinavian
origin. It has oil rich flesh that does not become firm when fried, steamed, poached, or boiled
causing it to usually be brined and dried then smoked and sold as ‘black cod’ or ‘finnan haddie,’

despite being neither. Sable fish is not a true cod (Gadidae) and a true ‘finnan haddie’ comes
from haddock found in the North Atlantic (Browning & Cole, 1980).
The Pacific hake (Merluccius productus) was chosen because it belongs to a genus with
species scattered throughout the world. Its close relative, the silver hake (Merluccius
bilinearis), found in New England and Eastern Canada, had been marketed in the United States
as whiting for many decades. In the late 1960s, Pacific hake was taken by Polish vessels,
processed aboard and sold in Mexico, also marketed as whiting. Part of the appeal was the fact
that it is unattractive, but could be caught in abundance and produce white fillets. The ling cod
(Ophiodon elongates) is also marketed after being incidentally caught. It brings a high price
because it is rated as one of the most palatable marine fishes, in addition to being very easy to
cook. Neither of these fish are usually commercially fished due to the difficulty catching it with
a trawler because they prefer intertidal zones among reefs, kelp beds, jetties, breakwaters, and
rock patches (Browning & Cole, 1980).
The use of more fish food supplies in North America has been discussed by many
authors throughout recent history. Clover (2008) suggests using Blue whiting. Despite its
potential to be a popular commercial fish, most people have never heard of it. However, it is
being marketed somewhere or something is eating it because there have been declines in the
last decade. It is rumored to be sold in Russia and Baltic states (Clover, 2008). Charles Clover
(2008) asks a critical question, ‘So what is stopping us from eating blue whiting, horse mackerel,
sand eels, or even the Peruvian anchoveta?’ and poses his answer, ‘Nothing, except that the
market is not yet used to providing them. So instead of asking for farmed salmon the next time

you’re at the fish counter, try asking for blue whiting or horse mackerel and see what happens.
You might just start something’ (Clover, 2008).
Building a market for human consumption of fishes can often mean it is fished more
slowly than current rates in which it is being turned into fish meal, sometimes preventing the
collapse of the fishery (Clover, 2008). However, encouraging consumption of ‘sustainably
caught’ fish puts excessive pressure on presently healthy stocks of fish (Jacquet & Pauly, 2007).
To aid in bycatch becoming a food source, financial incentives can cause undesirable
species to be renamed with more appealing titles. The Rock crab, once discarded as bycatch is
now marketed as ‘peekytoe crab,’ the Patagonian toothfish (an endangered species) is often
marketed as Chilean sea bass, and Slimeheads were renamed to orange roughy when the
market developed. Imitation crab or ‘krab’ is generally made of low quality white fish, including
pollock that has been aged too long, is too small, or was too damaged in the codend to make
high quality fillets. Duel names and name changes are used to confuse consumers and
complicate education efforts by seafood advocacy groups (Jacquet & Pauly, 2007).
France has used these tactics many times. Blue ling was popular in 1970, followed by
orange roughy in 1991, and, now, a range of deep water fishes as these fishes became
overfished. Unattractiveness of deep-sea fish has been overcome by filleting the fish causing
them to look like any other white fillet. French marketing experts worked on the unfamiliar
names to further help the market. They abandoned scientific names and instead used military
sounding names to appeal to patriots: Black scabbard fish became ‘sabre’, orange roughy
became’ empreur’ (closely resembling the name for swordfish in Spanish, ‘emperador’), and the
round-nosed grenadier was simply called grenadier (Clover, 2008).

Other suggested possibilities for human consumption include the pomfret (Brama
japonica), which the NMFS in Seattle, Washington, researched as a food source and discovered
that it is as tasty as the African pompano and could be quickly accepted as a food source, or the
Pacific saury (Cololabis saira), highly favored throughout the world, but considered strange to
Americans (Browning & Cole, 1980).
In some countries strong bycatch policies requiring vessels to keep all bycatch have
caused a market. In many cases, this means the fishers and fishing companies use many
methods to market their fish, including the traditional smoked, fried, or dried, but also
including putting it in stews or in condiments like veggie soups (Akande, 1998). Many tropical
fisheries, have also found crackers, spreads, cakes, and other ‘snack foods’ can be enriched with
fish proteins to add protein and use difficult to market fishes. In some instances, such as in
Nigeria, vessels have begun mixing fish with onions, spices, melon, salt, and vegetable oil on
board during mincing processes to simplify the marketing process (Akande, 1998). This also
allows for mixing of many fish species that do not bring a high market price (Akande, 1998).
In addition to marketing, non-profit organizations are often used to sway public
perception. Many Nongovernment Organizations (NGOs) and aquariums have also launched
campaigns to influence consumer behavior with wallet cards, cookbooks, and rulers to assure
customers are not purchasing juvenile fishes (Jacquet & Pauly, 2007). While Eco-labeling is not
effective in many Asian countries or developing countries (especially Latin America), an
effective campaign could be used in the United States and Canada to encourage eating bycatch,
such as sculpins. Many Americans would change behaviors when made aware of the need to
use all fishes caught in commercial fisheries (Jacquet & Pauly, 2007).

Sculpin could be in the group with sablefish and ling cod because it is evolutionarily
similar to these fishes. They are not caught in massive numbers at a time like pollock; but they
could be caught occasionally and rather than throwing them out, they could bring in a good
profit when caught. The same mild flavor that is appreciated in many popular white fishes is
found in sculpin showing sculpin have the potential to be marketed in United States and
Canadian markets.
A near shore live fishery for Cabezon (Scorpaenichthys marmoratus), among other
species, including several species of rockfish (Sebastes) exists in California, where the demand
for specialty foods in Asian restaurants and markets and consumers willing to pay higher prices
for live fish over dead, created the need. A fishery first described as a niche soon became a
multimillion dollar industry. Cabezon, the third ranked live fish fishery in California, accounted
for $0.34 million; and as fishing for cabezon has increased, so has market price per pound
(Heine, 2007). Because they are slow-growing and long-lived, they are protected in California’s
Nearshore Fishery Management Plan as a vulnerable species. The tighter regulations have
resulted in commercial catches of Cabezon to level off in recent years (Heine, 2007). However,
this small, but valuable commercial fishery for a species of sculpin indicates that larger sculpin
fisheries may be on the horizon. There is also some indication that the great sculpin, found in
the Bering Sea and throughout the United State Pacific coast may also be sold under the name
scorpina (Green, 2007). However, although it is an edible fish and usually thought to be
comparable to other white fish in flavor and texture, it is suggested that appearance and habits
will prevent it from entering markets as long as other fish are plentiful. Historically, a market

existed for the shorthorn sculpin but only because it was thought to be the best bait for lobster
pots (“Shorthorn sculpin,” n.d.).
Sculpin fished in California has mild-flavored, firm flesh and pairs well with almond,
butter, fennel, garlic, lemon, olive oil, onion, orange, oregano, per nod, saffron, shallot, thyme,
tomato, and white wine. The meat is off white and may be deemed too tough to eat by some
(Green, 2007). Sculpin would probably be a good candidate to be cooked in a traditional ‘Hong
Kong Style’ because it pairs well with strong flavors.
After World War II, a growing economy increased demand for fresh fish in Hong Kong,
where they even developed a unique style of eating fish: having fish ‘Hong Kong Style’ means
having it steamed with ginger and green onion (Freidberg, 2009).
A modern version of ‘Hong Kong Style’ fish is found in The New
Good Housekeeping Cookbook, called steamed seabass with
ginger and green onions.
‘1 whole seabass (2 pounds)
1 tablespoon dry sherry
½ teaspoon salt
½ teaspoon ground black pepper
2 tablespoons soy sauce
1 tablespoon vegetable oil
1 teaspoon Asian sesame oil
1 teaspoon cornstarch
1 teaspoon sugar
3 green onions, cut into pieces
1 piece peeled fresh ginger, about 1 inch long and ½ inch in
diameter, cut into slivers’
(Good Housekeeping Magazine, 1999)

In addition, Jeff Smith, known as the ‘frugal gourmet’ has a recipe for Matalote from The
Virginia Housewife, a Kenyan recipe for Baked Curried Fish, a steamed lingcod in black beans
recipe, a French Bouillabaisse recipe, and a Plaki – Baked Fish recipe that would all work well

with sculpin because they call for ‘whitefish’ (J. Smith & Jacobsen, 1999). Traditionally, the
French fisherman’s stew, Bouillabaisse, used whatever fish fishermen brought home from his
days catch. The women at home already had a base of oil, garlic, tomatoes, and spices already
prepared, allowing them to just add whole fish to the mixture.
Taste Test. On June 22, 2011, a panel made up of 7 members sampled yellow Irish lord
(Hemilepidontus jordani), “rockfish”, Pacific walleye pollock (Theragra chalcogramma), and
darkfin sculpin (Malacocottus zonurus). The yellow Irish lord and darkfin sculpin were caught by
a commercial fishing vessel trawling for pollock and flatfish in the BSAI, frozen, and shipped
from Dutch Harbor, Alaska. They arrived in Tacoma, Washington, still frozen and were stored in
a freezer until being removed to the refrigerator 24 hours before testing.
The pollock was purchased as frozen fillets from a popular grocery store, and the
“rockfish” was purchased fresh from the same grocery store and immediately frozen after
purchase to decrease differences between fishes tested. After thawing the sculpin
representatives, I personally filleted them. This was done for personal commentary on boniness
and difficulty filleting. The sculpins were weighed whole and fillets were weighed to represent a
percent yield.
The 2 darkfin sculpin were used to provide enough
meat for the testing. Darkfin 1 weighed 200g whole and
yielded a 10 g fillet and an 8 g fillet. Darkfin 2 weighed 225
g whole and yielded a 20 g fillet and a 10 g fillet. The
darkfin was no more difficult to fillet and did not possess
any more bones than I have discovered while filleting

Figure 8: Image of yellow Irish
lord being filleted for taste test.

channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) or crappie (family Centrarchidae).
One yellow Irish lord was used to provide enough meat for the testing. The yellow Irish
lord weighed 740 g whole and yielded an 80 g fillet and a 75 g fillet. The yellow Irish lord
contained more bones than the darkfin sculpin, but it also was not difficult to fillet. If the
sculpins are headed and gutted rather than filleted, as occurs on many vessels in the Bering
Sea, called ‘Head and Gut’ or ‘H&G’ boats, they yield much more meat because both sculpin
species used in this test had a piece of meat located behind the head before the dorsal fin and
another piece of meat located at the pectoral girdle. All fishes were put in similar pans for
cooking; seasoned with ¼ teaspoon of salt, pepper, and garlic powder; and baked at 350°F for
20 minutes simultaneously.
Methodology for taste-testing was performed using a Preference Taste Test. (Succop,
1998) One ounce pieces of each filleted fish were placed on white serving papers (cupcake
cups) labeled with a random three digit number chosen by rolling a die three times
consecutively and labeled by a colleague without my knowledge to avoid bias possibly
introduced by my knowledge of fishes being tested. Small pieces of filleted fish were used
because Western consumers often find the texture of fish paste offensive, possibly introducing
bias due to a dislike of the unfamiliar texture and, possibly, also introducing a different result
than found in filleted fish. It was also determined that samples tested should be presented in
the same form encountered in markets, which for American consumers is usually a fillet. The
cups were brought to the panel on a tray.
Evaluations were based on the odor, textures, and/or taste of the samples. A panel of
testers made up of peers (academic, professional, and social) was chosen based on familiarity

with consumption of fishes of different species. A ranking test is an effective method of
screening for inferior samples in product development and was chosen to determine if sculpin
meat is indeed an inferior product. It was also used to determine if a difference exists between
sculpin meat, pollock meat, and “rockfish” meat. Seven panel members were given 4 samples
and asked to rank odor, texture, and taste of each sample on a scale of one to five. (One being
very pleasing and five being not pleasing at all). Following each ranking the panel was given
opportunity to explain their ranking and describe odors, textures, and tastes. The panel was
also asked which fish was the most appealing; whether the fishes were interchangeable with
each other; and/or if the fishes were interchangeable with fishes they usually buy in order to
determine a comparison level. (Succop, 1998)
Following the taste test, panel members were presented with frozen whole fishes
similar to ones that would be found at a grocery for visual assessment. The panel was asked if
they generally purchase fishes whole, which fish they would be more likely to choose in a whole
fish market, and generalized opinions of the fishes based on visualizations. This was to
determine if sculpin are not chosen for consumption because of their physical appearance.
Pacific walleye pollock ranked lowest in odor with two samplers giving it a ‘3’ and only
one tester giving it the highest ranking, and the yellow Irish lord ranked highest with three
giving it the highest ranking. None of the fishes tested were given a ‘4’ or ‘5,’ being the lowest
two rankings.
Pacific walleye pollock also ranked lowest in texture with two ‘4’ rankings and two ‘3’
ranking. It also had one ranking each or ‘1’ and ‘2.’ One tester said the poor texture of the
pollock overpowered the taste, possibly biasing their ranking for taste (he/she gave the pollock

a ‘4’ in both texture and taste)’ while another tester said it was the ‘wettest’ or ‘moistest’ of the
four samples. “Rockfish” ranked highest in texture with 5 of the 6 testers giving it a ranking of
‘1’: the highest ranking. None of the fishes tested were given the lowest ranking of a ‘5.’ The
two sculpin (yellow Irish lord and darkfin sculpin) ranked similarly in textures with the darkfin
receiving one more ‘1’ vote than yellow Irish lord.
Pacific walleye pollock ranked lowest in taste as well with two votes each in the ‘2,’ ‘3,’
and ‘4’ categories. The yellow Irish lord ranked highest in taste testing with three votes each in
the ‘1’ and ‘2’ categories. In the taste testing, again, the “rockfish” and darkfin sculpin ranked
very close with the “rockfish” receiving one more ‘2’ vote than the darkfin sculpin. Many of the
tasters commented that none of the fishes sampled were overly fishy, a trait that many
American consumers look for in their fishes.
When asked ‘Which sample do you prefer?’ three votes were cast for “rockfish,” two for
the darkfin sculpin, and one for the yellow Irish lord. One tester did not rank one fish over any
other with an answer of ‘They were all about the same.’ That same tester stated that he/she
would substitute any of tested fish, including the 2 sculpin species, for white fish usually bought
and frequently described the two sculpin species as being like any other white fish. There was
one more tester who answered this question than the other questions because a 10-year-old
son of one of the testers tasted all of the fish but only wanted to tell his favorite: the “rockfish.”
However, he liked all but the pollock; and is, generally, considered to be a very picky eater.
When presented a whole sculpin (darkfin and longfin, a species not taste tested due to
quantity) and asked if they would buy the fish in front of them, most responded no. However,
most testers said they would not/do not buy whole fish generally. One tester stated ‘[the

sculpins] looked gross. Tadpole like;’ and another called the sculpin ‘creepy’ and suggested if
the head were removed he/she would buy it.

Figure 9: Fish Preferences
based on the Question
"Which Sample do You
Prefer?"
14%

14%

Yellow Irish
Lord
Darkfin Sculpin
29%
Pacific Walleye
Pollock
"Rockfish"

43%
0%

Testers generally agreed yellow Irish lord
and darkfin sculpin were very similar and that
they were comparable to ‘rockfish’ and could be
substituted for each other. One taster suggested
that if they were breaded they could easily be
substituted, but if they were steamed or sautéed
the different textures would be a noticeable

difference. Most agreed that pollock was inferior to the other three fishes tested, probably
predominately due to the texture. Tasters suggested the fishes sampled were similar enough to
or better than pollock, cod, or sole.

Chapter V: Conclusion
According to the data presented in this research, fishers should not target sculpin
species because so little is known about their life histories, and they could be overfished before
all life histories were understood. However, keeping more fish by creating a market for bycatch
would lessen the impact made to the environment through return of bycatch and catch of fish
that serve as both predator and prey in the ecosystem. Through this assessment, it was found
that North America could, in fact, use some sculpin from the Bering Sea and/or Gulf of Alaska as
a food source for humans based on their life histories, taste, numbers, and historical
information.
In the process of this research project, the extant of overfishing in the world’s oceans
became very clear. Most research shows similar conclusions. All commercially fished species are
on the decline, and I fear that if sculpin were marketed to humans and a fishery developed, this
species soon would be overfished as well. By eliminating single-fish fisheries in the Bering Sea
and Gulf of Alaska, and creating all multi-fish fisheries, similar to those found in the
Mediterranean, fisheries would be more productive from an anthropogenic view. All fish would
be kept and a market would exist for all fish caught.
Taxing fishes in the North Pacific, as is the case in many other countries, would be an
effective way of forcing fishers in the Bering Sea to keep bycatch. Generally, there is a
willingness to pay for all species caught in the pollock fishery, because they are necessary to the
production of pollock, with or without a market (Larson et al., 1998). However, if a market
existed managers and fishers could assess the value of trade-offs when setting quotas on nontarget fishes (Larson et al., 1998).

To address the issue of needing more fish diversity in the American diet, many agencies,
especially non-profit organizations have launched campaigns and marketing schemes to
increase the potential of using unknown species. Along with the generalized marketing of
seafood, the phenomenon of social marketing bears some mention because is it a frequently
used system, especially in the United States. Social marketing is defined as the application of
marketing to the resolution of social problems, such as overfishing and bycatch..
In Florida, Key Largo-based Reef Environmental Education Foundation (REEF) has come
up with the plan of eating the red lion fish, a non-native fish in Florida, to counter its invasion.
Lad Atkins, the director of REEF, has done so by authoring a cook book with a professional chef,
Tricia Ferguson. In addition, REEF has sponsored fishing derbies on the red lionfish, making
humans the only predator due to venomous spines. Adkins says he hopes that creating a
cookbook will help create a commercial fishery for the lion fish (“Eat’em stratagem for lionfish
invasion in Florida | Reuters,” 2010). With the right marketing, such as a cookbook, the public
may also be swayed to consume fishes they would not otherwise think to purchase or ask their
local fish merchant to purchase.
Fish, such as cod; pollock, and hake are fished because they are easy to catch in large
numbers with a trawl or longline. The U.S. fisheries in Alaskan waters have further created the
market North Americans know now by instituting policies prohibiting the catch of some bycatch
leading to fishers not catching and/or marketing almost all bycatch.
If a market and fishery were created for bycatch the demand could cause more catch of
the bycatch and potentially cause these fishes to be overfished as well. However, if U.S. policy

were implemented to insure fishers keep the bycatch they would normally throw away to
market, fishers would be forced to keep the fishes causing a small market to soon develop.
American policy is in place to prevent the fishing of certain fishes, termed in the
business as ‘prohibs’ because these species are regulated by another organization or they are
profitable to those who have a quota for these fishes. This policy prevents the use of prohibited
species from being kept and utilized by fishers without a quota for the species. As a result,
many other species have been deemed bycatch as well. Bycatch species, for various reasons do
not have a market, and are thus thrown away rather than being taken to market as fisher try to
use the limited space aboard the vessel for only the fishes they have a quota for and can get a
good price for from the market.
Perhaps a bigger issue found in the system worldwide is a question of what we are
eating. Sharks, are considered undesirable in Ecuadorian city markets; and are instead filleted
and labeled as weakfishes or tuna. Some estimate that ¾ of fish sold as ‘Red snapper’ in the
U.S. belong to species other than Lutjanus campechanus (the actual red snapper in the United
States). The National Environmental Trust also published a report revealing that a substantial
amount of illegal Patagonian toothfish enters the U.S. market mixed with other seafood or as
‘frozen fish fillets’ (Jacquet & Pauly, 2007) The fish labeled ‘rockfish’ in the taste test in this
research could have been any member of the rockfish family, or a fish that looks similar to a
rockfish. It could even be sculpin. Many fish are mislabeled or just labeled ‘whitefish’ so most
North American fish consumers have no idea what fish they are actually eating. In an effort to
market bycatch, this could play in favor of creating policies and markets toward keeping all
bycatch for human consumption. However, as a consumer, we should be asking ourselves if the

fish we are purchasing is actually what the package says and if that fish has been caught from
healthy stocks in a way that will ensure sustainable fishing.
While creating a market and fishery for all fishes could potentially lead to widespread
overfishing in a larger capacity than we currently see, creating a smaller niche market for
bycatch could help eliminate waste and add extra fish protein to a growing population and
demand. By changing American policies to force fishers to keep bycatch and instead pay a tax
on those that they do not have quotas for, the fishers would continue to avoid ‘prohibited
species’ with valuable markets being fished by other vessels; but the market would allow for
fishers to bring all catch in and make a profit from everything caught.
To ensure bycatch does not become the targeted fish leading current targeted species
to become bycatch and creating an identical problem for a different fish, policy could mandate
all fishes be caught and a tax could be enforced on fishes that the fisher does not have a quota
for. This is a common method in many multifish fisheries throughout the world, such as Nigeria,
the South China Sea, and the Mediterranean. This tax needs to be high enough that it would
not be negligible to the fishers and fishing companies, causing them to potentially target the
‘bycatch’ they do not have a quota for despite being taxed. It also needs to be low enough to
ensure that fishers are not financially harmed by the tax if they do accidentally catch ‘too much’
of the ‘bycatch.’ The tax also needs to be low enough to not inspire a greater increase in illegal
discharge of ‘bycatch’ species despite the mandate to keep all fishes.
By keeping all fishes caught, there will be more sources of fish protein from the Bering
Sea, Alaska, meaning greater exports from the U.S.; potentially, more food sources; and less
fish waste being removed from then returned to the ecosystem.

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