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Re-assessing the potential of waste in Senegal: Landfills an opportunity to fill in the gap in
energy production for developing countries
By Zeinab Sadiya Sow
A Thesis Submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree
Master of Environmental Studies
The Evergreen State College
September 2017
©2017 by Zeinab Sadiya Sow. All rights reserved.
This Thesis for the Master of Environmental Studies Degree
by
Zeinab Sadiya Sow
has been approved for
The Evergreen State College
by
________________________
Dr. Kathleen Saul
Member of the Faculty
_______________________
Date
ABSTRACT
Re-assessing the potential of waste in Senegal: Landfills an opportunity to fill in the gap in
energy production for developing countries
Zeinab Sadiya Sow
This thesis examines the environmental, human, social and economic issues related to the issues
of waste management in Senegal (and almost every country from the Global South).
It is a challenge that the local governments are still grappling with. Studies have shown that by
implementing a sustainable and operational framework grounded in strong and effective policies
that take into account both the people and the environment, two other challenges that a lot of
developing countries face can be addressed by ricochet. The first is energy issues – as the
methane generated from the landfills can be converted to produce energy – electricity, also
mitigating methane emissions and thus addressing climate change. The second is the creation of
jobs through a circular economy, which is ground-breaking in a country where the
unemployment rate is at a staggering 16.51%.
Table of Contents
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. v
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. vi
Acknowledgments......................................................................................................................... vii
Chapter 1: Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1
Chapter 2: Presentation of Mbeubeuss. ......................................................................................... 8
The workers ............................................................................................................................... 12
Chapter3: Discussion Increase in Municipal Solid Waste ( MSW) Generation in developing
countries ........................................................................................................................................ 21
Methane emissions from unregulated dumps ............................................................................ 23
Groundwater Pollution .............................................................................................................. 24
Clean Development Mechanim and Landfill Gas (LFG) Projects ............................................ 26
LFG Projects – an opportunity to boost electricity production in developing countries .......... 28
Chapter 4: Methods ...................................................................................................................... 30
Chapter 5: Landfill Mining .......................................................................................................... 31
Landfill Gas Extraction for Energy ........................................................................................... 34
Chapter 6: Recommendations for Mbeubeuss : Why it makes sense to implement a Landfill Gasto-Energy project at the landfill. ................................................................................................... 38
Recurrent power outages in Senegal ......................................................................................... 38
Plan Senegal Emergert: strong emphasis on clean and green energy ....................................... 40
Chapter 7: Conclusion.................................................................................................................. 43
References ..................................................................................................................................... 45
iv
List of Figures
Figure 1: Cutaway View of Engineered Landfill ............................................................................ 4
Figure 2: Geographic Map of Mbeubeuss ...................................................................................... 8
Figure 3: A worker scavenging through the waste ....................................................................... 15
Figure 4: A group workers at the Mbeubeuss dump ..................................................................... 16
Figure 5: workers waiting for truck to unload waste so they can start sorting through it ............ 16
Figure 6: Aerial photo of the Dump : a threat to the environment and the public ........................ 17
Figure 7: Piles of Waste Adjacent Modern Buildings .................................................................. 18
Figure 8: Koshe landslide Ethiopia (The similarities between Koshe and Mbeubeuss are striking)
....................................................................................................................................................... 19
Figure 9: A house at Mbeubeuss dump......................................................................................... 20
Figure 10: Enhanced Landfill Mining........................................................................................... 33
Figure 11: A simplified diagram of the methane to electricity production from the deposit stage
at the landfill to the conversion and production and transmission through the electric grid. ...... 35
Figure 12: Vertical LFG well collection ....................................................................................... 36
Figure 13: Horizontal LFG collection........................................................................................... 37
Figure 14: Senegal’s Electrical Energy Productivity and Access Profile ..................................... 40
v
List of Tables
Table 1: Four Sections at Mbeubeuss ........................................................................................... 10
vi
Acknowledgments
This thesis would not have been possible without the valuable help and contribution of these
following people/ entities:
First of foremost, thanking ALLAH (God) The Almighty, The Maker, The Sustainer.
Dr Kathleen Saul, who, beyond my reader has become a mentor and a friend. Thank you for
picking me up every time I’ve fallen down and almost given up on myself.
My two amazing parents Dr Papa Salif Sow and Mrs Nafissatou Sar Sow. Thank you for being
the best parents any child could ever ask for. Thank you for seeing in me what I don’t see in
myself and being my biggest cheerleaders, holding my hand and guiding me through each step of
my life. I would not be here without you.
My sisters Aicha Betty Sow and Fatimata Zahra Sow, thank you for your unwavering support,
your constant words of encouragement, thank you for making me laugh and helping me get
through this process.
My extended family back in Senegal: my grandpa, uncles, aunts, cousins.Your outpour of love
and constant prayers have guided me this far and I am sure will continue to, for the rest of my
life. Thank you.
My best friends Assiatou Kama and Atsan Penda Senghor. You two have been my rocks, the
helping hands I can always count on, the shoulders I can always cry on. Thank you for your
kindness and sisterhood.
My MES cohort for your friendship, kindness and support.
I’d like to dedicate this thesis to Senegal and its beautifufl people. I may be away but you are
constantly on my mind.
vii
Chapter 1: Introduction
"Nothing is lost, nothing is created, everything is transformed."
Antoine Lavoisier, French Chemist, 1743-1794
According to the United Nations Department of Economics and Social Affairs, the world
population is expected to reach 8.5 billion people by the year 2030. More than half of that
population will be living in developing/emerging countries; located mainly on the African and
Asian continents. An increase in the human population to that level will subsquently translate
into overpopulation and competition for the access to the shared and already scarce resources. A
signicant increase in the human population will also acceralerate the consumption of those
resources placing an extremely heavy burden on the environment, thus resulting in its
degradation (Cassils,2004).
John Wilmoth, the United Nations’ Director of Economics and Social Affairs stated:
The concentration of population growth in the poorest countries presents its own set
of challenges, making it more difficult to eradicate poverty and inequality, to combat
hunger and malnutrition, and to expand educational enrolment and health systems, all
of which are crucial to the success of the new sustainable development agenda (United
Nations, 2015).
With the consumption of resources, it is tacitly implied that waste will be generated as a
byproduct. The waste produced can be solid or liquid, and sometimes hazardous, which poses a
threat not only for human health, but also for the environment if not disposed of following the
rules and regulations implemented by environmental and health stakeholders.
Unfortunately, for developing countries, the disposal and management of waste is, to this day,
a conundrum for which they have yet to find effective solutions to. The contrast between how
developed nations are able to handle their waste issues in comparison with developed nations is
1
absolutely striking. Developed nations have been “quite” successful in addressing their waste
issues, because they’ve put the concepts “cradle-to- cradle” and “cradle-to-grave” at the core of
the handling and disposal of their solid waste. The imagery and thought process used to describe
both concepts are simple: every product from its conception (cradle) to the moment it’s no longer
usable and useful therein “dies” (grave) needs to be able to be reused, repurposed and offered a
chance at a “second” life through the recycling of either its biological nutrients and/or technical
components (Sustainable Dictionary, 2017).
I cannot fail to mention that the majority of the world’s most contaminated and “worse”
dumping sites are located in developing countries, specifically on the African and Asian
continents--Kibera (Kenya), Bisasar (South Africa), Mbeubeuss (Senegal), Okhla and Ghazipur
(India), just to name a few. Yet these only represent a tip of the iceberg--the list goes on. The
above observation brings forth a series of questions that ought to be answered:
1. What could be the reason(s) and/or factor(s) that could explain why there are such major
differences in how developed and developing nations address their waste issues?
2. What is the Global North doing right?
3. What is the Global South doing wrong?
4. What lessons – if any could the Global North teach the Global South to help them address
waste issues effectively and effeciently?
It is also worth mentioning that the common denominator for all those dumping sites is their
location: they are, for the most part, often placed next to disadvantaged/unprivileged
neighborhoods, home to the poor and those who were driven away by the excessive housing
prices in the city. I cannot help but ask myself if it is simply fate or a convenient coincidence?
If analyzed under Clapp’s concept named “distancing of waste”, it is not a mere coincidence.
2
Indeed, the concept explains that societies have grown to delocalize the waste produced outside
of the “richer spaces” and next to the “remote, poorer spaces of urban geography” where people
of meager means and resources also live (Clapp, 2002).
Indeed, poor and marginalized populations live on lands that are definitely unsuitable to live
on and are in close proximity to waste that puts their health at risk, making them more
susceptible to contracting diseases like malaria and cholera. These people do not have access to
the basic sanitary infrastructure wealthier populations take for granted such as latrines and access
to clean and potable water. Analyzed under the scope of environmental justice (or rather
injustice in this case), it is imperative to find sustainable solutions to the waste issues in
developing countries for two main reasons. First of all, no one should have to live in such
inhumane and precarious conditions. Second, beyond the social/human questions connected to
the issue, the environment is also greatly suffering from it.
In order to understand why the disposal and management of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)
varies greatly between developing and developed countries, I first examined how the issue is
seen/perceived by both. For developed nations, the term "landfill", a designated operational site
where waste is disposed of is more commonly used. Indeed, "landfilling" is the primary
technique used by developed nations such as the United States, the countries of the EU, China
and Japan to dispose of waste (Thermelis et al., 2006). However, landfills can pose serious
environmental and health hasards if they are not regulated and managed effectively and
efficiently. Because landfills may come into direct contact with the surrounding environment
(See Figure 1), hazardous chemicals and other materials from the landfill can seep into the
surrounding soils and water and are almost in direct contact with groundwater and surface water
that can affect not only the environnment but also its biodiversity. The liquid formed by the
3
chemicals and other materials penetrates the soils and goes deep enough to reach the water table
is called landfill leachate. Landfill leachate can be a source of groundwater and surface water
pollutions (Salam et al., 2014). In order to keep leachate levels at an acceptable treshold at
saniatary landfills, a precautionary procedure of taking samples is required and is monitored
thoroughly. The leachate can also be in contact with fecal matter present at the landfill; in case it
percolates and reaches the grounwater, it can seriously impact human health through the
contraction and transmission of diseases like cholera (Vibrio cholerae), salmonellosis
(Salmonella sp) and dysentery (Shigella sp.) (Santamaria et a., 2003). In addition, landfills and
dumps are the third largest emitters of anthropogenic methane, a greenhouse gas three times
more potent than carbon dioxide (Kumar et al., 2004). Therefore, it is of utmost importance to
find a way to address and curb its emissions.
Figure 1: Cutaway View of Engineered Landfill
Source: Research project: Transport of toxic metals in clay landfill linings: influence of
nanoparticles, University of Southhampton, Accessed August 10, 2017 from
https://www.southampton.ac.uk/oes/research/projects/transport_of_toxic_metals_in_clay_landfil
l_linings.page
4
The call to effectively and effeciently regulate the disposal and management of MSW stems
from a strong will of members of the public and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(USEPA) to manage, thus protecting and conserving natural resources. In that effect, a
regulatory bill was introduced on October 9, 1999 to redefine and revise the requirements and
criteria for the concepts of municipal solid waste and landfills (Themelis et al., 2006). The
revised criteria now mandated that landfills be equipped with liners and a leachate collection
sytems, which are two preventative measures to make ensure that water pollution is successfuly
avoided. In addition, gas pipes and wells (whether vertical or horizontal) were now to be added
to the landfills’ infrastructures so as to collect the gas generated by the waste. The gas could be
ultimately used to produce heat and/or electricity (Themelis et al., 2006).
In less developed countries, also refered to as the Global South, landfills are an abstract idea,
a vague and unfamiliar concept. The term "dump" mirrors more adequately the way waste is
disposed of and more than 90% of it gets disposed of in dumps (Amrithra et al., 2016; Sharloy et
al., 2008). Amritha et al. reported that nearly more than half of the countries around the world
use the dumping method over landfilling (Amritha et al., 2016 ).
Waste managment, in developing countries in general and Senegal (my home country) in
particular, needs to be approached holistically rather than individually as there are different
moving parts (social, economic, environment, health) that feed into and have intricate links with
one another. Pope Francis said: "[W]e are not faced with two separate crises, one environmental
and the other social but rather one complex which is both social and environmental" and that is
how waste issues ought to be thought of.
For the purpose of this thesis, I will be using Mbeubeuss, Senegal’s most well-known and
prominent dumping site, as a case study. I analyze it from three angles. First and foremost, I
5
look at the obvious and heavy human/social implications that are associated with landfills.
Second, I probe the groundwater pollution/deterioration and the health impacts on the
populations living close to the site. Third, I delve into a discussion pertinent to methane
emissions and the importance of addressing them as they contribute to global warming. Then, I
turn to the opportunities that landfill waste presents and the feasability of harnessing and
converting methane from the landfills to produce electricity and/or heat. Last but not least, I
formulate policy development and recommendations for Senegal, with the hope that they can
serve as a blueprint for any developing country that struggles with addressing both electricity
production and the management of MSW.
This thesis is all the more important as it aligns with the vision of Senegal’s current President,
Macky Sall. Indeed, in 2015, His Excellence Mr. Sall has come up with a roadmap called Plan
Senegal Emergent (PSE), which, just as its name implies, is an ambitious plan to help the
country transition from its status of emerging to developed country. A strong emphasis on the
protection of the environment and the production of clean, green and renewable energy sources
such as solar, wind and hydro translate the President’s goal to shy away from fossil-fuel
dependent energy production, as agreed at the Conference of Parties in Paris in 2015 (COP21).
Currently, a lot of developing/emerging countries still grapple with waste management issues
for two main reasons. First of all, the costs to dispose of waste are very high. Therefore, the high
costs of waste management may not necessarily fit into the municipalities’ budgets (Guerrero et
al., 2013). It becomes then easier for them to dispose of the waste in areas outside of the main
cities, specifically in low-lying areas because it is significantly cheaper and less labor intensive
(Kumar et al., 2004). However, with the implementation of strong and effective policies that
take into account both the people and the environment, that challenge could turn into a great
6
opportunity because it will answer/mitigate climate change, propulse and boost the creation of
clean energy (landfill gas to electricity projects) and it will also create jobs.
I hope this thesis serve as a trailblazer and exemple for any developing country to re-assess
their relationship with waste and realize that landfills, if managed sustainably can be a gold
mine.
7
Chapter 2: Presentation of Mbeubeuss.
Figure 2: Geographic Map of Mbeubeuss
Source: Google Images
Mbeubeuss is located in Malika, 30 kilometers (18 miles) outside of Dakar, the capital of
Senegal, between the latitudes 14°17’ and 14°50’ North and the longitudes 17° 16’ and 17° 20’
West (Essouli, 2005). It is situated in the district of Pikine, one of Dakar’s and West Africa’s
poorest and most overpopulated neighborhoods (Judell, 2012). The dumping site was first open
in 1968, and was inhabited at the time. But as Dakar grew, so did its population and soon people
with meager resources and not enough money to afford living in the hub of the capital slowly
started to relocate around areas close to the dump site (VoaNews, 2009). Soon, the cities of
Tivaoune Peulh, Keur Massar, Pikine were established and the population numbers grew
exponentially (Gueye, 2017; Judell, 2012).
The site, about 75 hectares in size, sits on what used to be Lake Malika, which has dried up
8
since Mbeubeuss was implemented (Vidal, 2014). Because of its rather advantageous
topographic position, the soils are very fertile and rich; and for that reason a lot of small scale
farms have frantically sprouted over the course of the years (Judell, 2012). Unfortunately, as a
result from the proximity with the dump, the waters and soils are also heavily polluted, making
the food and meat poultry grown there defintely not appropriate for consumption. The site
welcomes not only the Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) waste generated by the region of Dakar,
but also all the waste produced by the industrial and manufacturing companies situated close by
(IAGU, 2011).
For better operational efficiency (n.b I use the term efficiency quite loosely here), the dump
has been divided in 4 sections: (1) Gouye Gui (the Ouolof term for a massive tree), (2) Baol
(named after a former Senegalese kingdom), (3) the main platform where all the waste is dumped
and triaged, and last but not least (4) the compost recuperation area (Judell, 2012).
9
Table 1: Four Sections at Mbeubeuss
Source: Adapted from Judell, 2012
Name of Section
Gouye Gui
Operational Structure
-
Industrial waste is recycle there
(plastic, glass bottles, non-ferrous
metals, electronic waste
- about 100 workers
Baol
-
Turf of seasonal workers
- industrial waste is recyled here as
well
Platform
-
Main operational epicenter ; operates
day and night with 100 workers
Compost Recuperation area
-
Workers look for rich soils and
sediments they resell to their netwrok
of farmers in Dakar.
Originally, the site was chosen for waste disposal because of its convenient location: it is far
away enough from the beautiful and effervescent epicenter of the metropolitan city (again the
concept of distancing of waste as previously stated above). With an "out of site, out of mind"
concept, it is almost easy to get fooled by the aesthically pleasing and appealing face that the city
presents to visitors. The reality is, unfortunately, quite the opposite: the ugly truth is that
Mbeubeuss is an environmental, social and economic imbroglio with very complex
repercussions. Therefore, Mbeubeuss has now joined the infamous list of the world’s "worst
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dumping sites" alongside Indonesia, India, Ghana,Brazil, China et cetera (Vidal, 2014). Local
and international ecologists have dimmed the light and brought forth the problem and even gone
so far as to comparing Mbeubeuss to a "ticking timebomb" (Vidal, 2014).
The impacts on the public health are quite alarming. A study on the populations living in
proximity to the landfill have been tested and traces of lead were detected in their blood and
urine samples (Cabral et al., 2012). The population of Mbeubeuss is mainly comprised of
children; their exposure to lead can cause irreversible damages to their respiratory, neurologic
and reproductive systems (Cisse, 2012). In addition, the time-bomb metaphore makes all the
more sense and is all the more appropriate considering the accidents, sometimes resulting in
deaths, that occur over the course of the years: just at the end of year 2016, three people perished
in a fire (Soumare, 2017; Cisse, 2012).
Mbeubeuss--the name alone sounds terryfing; guttural appelation which ressembles any
hairy, scary monster straight out of any children’s book. It is not a monster per se, but from an
environmental standpoint, can be labelled as one. The landscape is pittoresque and offers the
ideal setting to shoot a horror movie (Vidal, 2014). The ground is strewn with plastic bags,
aluminum cans, organic housewaste waste, electronic appliances such as refrigerators, computers
still connected to keyboards. There are pieces of furniture everywhere, cans of paint of all colors
and solvents--some containers still half full. The six-square kilometer dump holds so much
"stuff" that navigating through this intricate maze calls for extreme vigilance and tact. Danger is
everywhere.
The air is filled with a pestilential smell of rotten eggs, which is explained by the carcasses of
dead animals, laying further down, in advanced stages of putrefaction. The smell is also
explained in part by the amputed body parts that are found amidst the decor; due to a lack of
11
adequate infrastructures that allow a safe disposal of biomedical and clinical waste, hopsitals do
not have any choice but to dump them there. Wild dogs are chasing each other, feasting on
those. Giggles and laughter sometimes interrurpt the defeaning silence, as a group of children
are playing , hide and seek, barefoot, completely oblivious to the dangers they face. Those
dangers range from piles of waste falling on them, getting stung and potentially infected by the
syringes and/or needles on the ground, and, last but not least, being ran over by the few trucks
that dump their loads fretentically, ready to hit the road for another round.
The workers
Self-claimed and self-employed recycling workers process all the waste at Mbeubeuss. The
term "boudjouman" is used to describe them. The more socially acceptable translation of the
term would be "scavengers", originally used to designate an informal worker, but now having
gained a more peojorative meaning. Indeed, the job-title has now been claimed and used as a
"passe-partout" identity by all the unemployed younsters living at the landfill. As a matter of
fact, it has been estimated that 10% of the workers are early teenagers (12 years old and up),
25% are women and 65 % are men of a certain age (Judell, 2012).
Although many of them do work there and make an honest living, scavenging through the
waste and reselling it to third parties manufacturers, Mbeubeuss sadly also harbors deliquants,
thieves, and drug addicts. As a matter of fact, beyond constiting threats to the environement and
public health, landfills are usually the theater of human and social tragedies: due to the lack of
control/law-enforcement and disorganized setup, it offers an ideal setting for rapes, murders,
abductions, and more (Burrows, 2015). This is confirmed by the President of the Association of
scavengers, Mr Pape Ndiaye, who has deplored the fact that Mbeubeuss offers the perfect
12
"hideout for crooks and hooligans" (Sy, 2006).
As of 2006, there were about 1000 workers which lived on site with their families.
A little over a decade has gone by and that number has obviously increased for two main
reasons: urbanization, econonomics and demographics. These three key factors need to be
analyzed simultaneously, rather than separately. Later in this thesis, I will analyze them in more
detail.
The Occupational Safety and Health Adminstration (OSHA) is a part of the United States
Department of Labor. Per international standards, it sets forth rules and regulations that ensures
the well-being and the protection of all workers. Among those rules is the mandatory use of
Personal Protective Equipment also known as (PPE). PPE is worn to :
minimize exposure to hazards that cause serious workplace injuries and illnesses.
These injuries and illnesses may result from contact with chemical, radiological,
physical, electrical, mechanical or other workplace hazards. Personal protective
equipment may include items such as gloves, safety, glasses and shoes, earplugs or
muffs, hard hats, respirators, or coveralls, vests and full body suits (OSHA, 2017).
At Mbeubeuss, the "boudjoumen" work for their own account and they do not have access to
PPE. First of all, they are propably not aware of internional standards they need to follow and or
how to use the equipment to efficiently protect themselves. Second, PPE is very expensive and
with the low wages they make from selling the salvaged material from the landfills, they are not
able to afford them. Subsequently, they’ve become very good at finding ingenious ways to
create their own version of PPE. Handkerchieves, sunglasses and rubber gloves are what they
are using. Indubitably, those are insufficient layers of protection and for that same very reason,
workers find themselves subject to serious physical injuries ranging from fractures to severe
burns, and exposed to irreversible respiratory diseases, human feces, infectious diseases.
Mbeubeuss is a voracious ogre and has over the course of the years claimed the lives of many
13
workers. The most recent deaths date back to December of 2016. A pile of waste caught on fire
and soon enough, the fire spread. Two workers died, calcinated and a third went missing.
(Soumare, 2017). Unregulated/open dumps and even sanitary landfills are very suceptible to
catching on fire. Fires usually start because of the presence of combustibles like plastics, paper,
cardboard et cetera. For example, if there is are hot ashes or a rising tempatures on a warm day,
that could be enough to get a fire started. A hastily discarded match may also spell trouble in a
landfill (U.S. Fire Administration, 2001).
Besides risks of fire, cases of lanslides are also frequent not only at Mbeubeuss, but also at
other dumps. Engineering analyses of such catastrophes indicate that differences in the moisture
content of the various layers of the landfill might be one of the causes of landslides (the more
recently added waste tends to be wetter) (Yin et al., 2015). Unfortunately, those trying to eke out
a living on the landfill have no understanding of these scientific principles at work. The dumps
are both a workplace and home for a lot of people; their aim is their survival and that’s why the
human casualties are always high.
14
Figure 3: A worker scavenging through the waste
Source: https://www.sencms.com/news/Societe/lendemain-de-tabaski-dakar-ploie-sous-lesordures-et-la-mauvaise-odeur_n_148.html
15
Figure 4: A group workers at the Mbeubeuss dump
Source: http://globalrec.org/2017/01/02/a-massive-fire-
Figure 5: workers waiting for truck to unload waste so they can start sorting through it
Source: http://www.thisisplace.org/i/?id=c0653950-8ff7-4312-baad-fbf2a32a690a
16
Figure 6: Aerial photo of the Dump : a threat to the environment and the public
Source: http://www.alamy.com/stock-photo/landfill.html?pe=001&so=20
17
Figure 7: Piles of Waste Adjacent Modern Buildings
Source: http://www.seneweb.com/news/Societe/reportage-nbsp-un-laquo-nbsp-mbeubeuss-nbspraquo-rsquo-niche-au-c-oelig-ur-de-dakar_n_188196.html
On March 12th 2017, Ethiopia woke up in horror: 113 people living at the Koshe landfill had
perished in a landslide. The name of the landfill Koshe literally translates into "dust", already
giving away the nature of the accident. Some people have taken up residence on site, living in
"houses" made out recycled material (Duggan et al., 2017). The unstability of the land and the
poor quality of the building materials are two ingredients that make the ideal recipe to a
accidents like that. A similar scenario has occured in China in 2015 killing 58 people (Duggan et
al., 2017). As at Koshe and in China, the social implications that are associated with unregulated
dumps come at a very heavy price: when there are accidents or catastroophes of any nature, the
18
toll is usually very high because the number of people living on the premises is usually
important. By some esimates, 15 million people live on dumpsites and landfiflls around the
world (England, 2017). Protecting the "workers" for the government of those countries seldom
mean relocating them to a new area and that process usually takes time and requires a lot of
money. In addition, for those living on the dumps scavanging is a more honorable means of
providing for a family than begging or turning to crime.
Figure 8: Koshe landslide Ethiopia (The similarities between Koshe and Mbeubeuss are striking)
Source: http://www.cnn.com/2017/03/15/africa/ethiopia-trash-landslide-death-toll/index.html
19
Figure 9: A house at Mbeubeuss dump
Source: https://www.idrc.ca/fr/article/la-decharge-de-mbeubeuss-creuset-dexperiences
20
Chapter3: Discussion Increase in Municipal Solid Waste ( MSW) Generation in
developing countries
Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is the amount and quantity of waste generated by households,
industrial, commercial businesses in any given municipality (Cointreau, 1982). In both
developed and developing countries, municipalities bear the burden of disposing of MSW
(Guerrero et al., 2013). However, both the management and disposal of MSW are becoming a
major problem in developing countries and their capitals because of a signifcant increase in the
population and subsequently, the amount of waste generated. Indeed, with urbanization and
globalization, living in the city offers more professional, economonic, social opportunities and
advantages to people from the countryside. Cities and capitals in developing countries have been
witnessing a rapid and constant increase in its population--approximately 4-7% per year
(Cointreau, 1982). Dakar, Senegal has become a major metropolitan city and is one of the most
populated cities in the country, with a population of three million people (Agence de la Presse
Senegalaise, 2017).
The urban exodus can be explained by the general assumption that moving to the city is
usually synonymous to an opportunity to make a better living, thus increasing a person’s buying
and spending power and also equates to a significant increase in social status (Kaushal et al.,
2012; Kumar, 2016). This then translates into more waste generated per person per kilogram
per day due to the direct correlation between an increase in salary (or access to better living
conditions) and the quantity of waste generated (Bello, 2016). It is estimated that 7.6 million
tons of MSW are generated per day in developing countries (Nagendran et al., 2006).
A study conducted in Qatar looked at how an increase in salary promotes behavioral and new
lifestyle choices/changes (Bello, 2016). The authors found that the more money and resources
21
one has access to, the greater their spending power, and the more waste will be generated.
Although Senegal is not as wealthy as Qatar, similar trends are currently happening and can be
seen in the more affluent neighborhoods of the capital Dakar- like Almadies, Point E, Ngor,
and Fann Residence. A decade ago, 2.9 billion residents produced 0.64kg (roughly 1.4 lbs) of
MSW ( World Bank, 2012). As of today, there are 3 billion people generating 1.2 kg (2 lbs) of
MSW, which equates to 1.3 billion of tons of MSW a year. The World Bank’s 2012 report
entitled "What a waste: A Global Review of Solid Waste Management" takes a closer look at
the trends amount of MSW. Experts project that by the year 2025, 4.3 urban residents will
produce 1.4kg (3 lbs) of MSW per person per day (World Bank, 2012).
All these factors strongly play in favor of a signficant increase in the amount of MSW. A
report by Kawai and Tasaki, entitled "Revisiting estimates of municipal solid waste generation
per capita and their reliability", provided the per capita waste generation of countries around the
globe. Although it was very difficult to obtain accurate and reliable data for developing
countries, they were able to come up with a figure for Senegal: 0.52 kg per person per day for
Senegal. The value for OECD countries was listed at 1.34 kg per person per day. Based on the
data given, the global median can be calculated at 0.94 kg per person per day. Given all the
issues and challenges currently faced, could Senegal even handle 0.94 kg per person per day of
waste? Would it be ready to deal with such an increase ?
At its creation, Mbeubeuss received 475,000 tons of waste per year. In 2011, that value
reached 500,000 tons of waste per year and by 2015 that volume was well over 519,000 tons per
year (Mbengue et al.,2015) The waste received at the dump is comprised approximately of 45%
of fine particles and 20% of rotten/decaying material and the remaining 35% are solid materials
(CRDI- IAGU, 2011). The rest of the waste is made up of aluminium cans, plastics bottles,
22
glass, textiles,eletronics appliances and even synthetic hair weave.
The primary reason why MSW constitutes a major problem for municipalities in developing
countries is because it is not placed high on their list of priorities; other issues such as public
health, education, construction / pavement of roads are put first at the detriment of MSW
(Nagendran et al., 2006). The mistake made by municipalities in regards to addressing MSW
stems from a fact of not understanding the deep repercussions that a poor management of MSW
can have both on the public health and the environment. As stated earlier, they need to be
analyzed simultenously instead of separately because open dumps create environmental
nuisances that in turn affect the health of the people living at the dump and that of the people
living nearby.
Methane emissions from unregulated dumps
Both natural and anthropogenic (man-made) sources emit methane. In 2000, 286 million
tonnes of methane were emitted, according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(USEPA). Of those 286 million, dumps and sanitary landfills produced 36 million tonnes
(Themelis et al., 2007).
Landfill gas (LFG), the gas emitted by dumps and landfills is predominantly composed of
methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide ( CO2) (Kumar et al., 2016). LFG results from the
anaerobic decompostion of organic matter (food and yard waste primarily) (Matthews et al.,
2007). It is a very powerful greenhouse gas (GHG), 21 times more powerful at sequestering
heat in the atmosphere than carbon dioxide over a 100-year time frame (Johanssen et al., 1999).
For that reason, in terms of impact on climate change, landfill gas can be considered more
powerful and dangerous than carbon dioxide (Yip et al., 2008). It contributes significantly to the
23
acceleration of the global warming mechanism every year. In fact, the context of global
warming, MSW from dumps and landfills produces 15% of the yearly global methane emissions
budget (West et al., 1998).
A widening gap exists between developed and developing nations in how the former
addresses the production of LFG as opposed to the latter. To mitigate the production of methane
from landfills, developed nations have invested heavily in capturing the LFG and use it to
produce both electricity and heat. The gas either can be flared or even burned to recover energy
(Yip et al., 2008). Despite the heavy economic and financial investments required to put such
LFG systems in place, both strategies have proven to be successful in mitigating methane
emissions and producing electricity and heat (Matthews et al., 2007). In California for example,
landfill gas projects produce almost 250 MW of electricity (California Energy Commission,
2017).
Groundwater Pollution
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), more than 340.000 children die around
the world yearly after contracting diseases from consuming or playing in contaminated waters
(Min, 2015). Landfills and dumps are one source of contaminated water. Open dumps are also
the source of environmental catastrophes and a direct threat to public health for many other
reasons. They receive a myriad of different waste types, including industrial material (such as
batteries, electronic appliances and paints) whose content in heavy metals is extremely high (
Cabral et al., 2012). The most common types of heavy metals found in dumps include lead (Pb),
arsenic (As), chromium (Cr), zinc ( Zn), copper (Cu), mercury (Hg) and nickel (Ni) (Wuana et
al., 2011). Heavy metals are extremely dangerous if not handled and disposed of carefully. In
24
adults, lead exposure can cause anemia, headaches, and memory problems. In children, lead
poisoning can result in development delays (reproductive) and hearing loss (Mayo Clinic, 2017).
Mercury exposure can lead to vision, cognitive impairement and tremors; arsenic is known to
cause skin lesions that can evolve to skin cancer (Mayo Clinic, 2017).
In developing countries, the challenge of supplying clean water preventing its contamination
by heavy metals is exarcerbated by a notable defiency, inedquacy and lack of infrastructures and
facilities to not only treat the waste but also contain it. If effective containment measures were
put in place, they would help prevent human contact with these toxic substances, thus avoiding
preventable diseases and deaths.
Leachate is the liquid that accumulates at the bottom of the landifll, gathering both
suspsensed and dissolved particles along the way (Raghab et al., 2013). Leachate can be also be
a vector of carcinogens (Sambou, 2008). Through percolation, the leachate passes through the
water table and then reaching the aquifers below. The populations living on the site at the dumps
and those that live nearby rely heavily on that water source for their daily needs; often times they
are aware that the water is not fit for consumption. In truth, they don’t have any other choice.
In developed countries, sanitary landfills are required to have liners that prevent the leachate
from reaching the water table, thus containing the population. The liners can either be made of
plastic, clay or a composite (a mix of plastic and clay) (ejnet.org). Coupled with a lack of
latrines or toilets, infrastructure taken for granted in many parts of the Global North, populations
residing near dumps in the Global South are highly susceptible to contracting cholera, dysenteria,
and malaria. The populations live in close quarters and in promiscuity: in case of an outbreak,
the disease spreads much more rapidly than in other settings.
As mentionned earlier, Mbeubeuss sits on what used to be a dried up lake. Beause of that, the
25
soils are very rich and fertile due to their high contents of sediments, making them appear
suitable for agriculture and raising poultry and pork. In order to cut down on their expenses, the
animal breeders use the organic waste and leftover foods found at the dump to feed the animals
(Sambou, 2008). Unfortunately, animals started getting sick due to the food and water they were
fed with--traces of polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) were found in their bloodstream (Sambou,
2008). After the animals are slaughtered and sold to the general public, it becomes a dominoeffect and people start getting sick. Exposure to PCBs in humans is known to increase deaths
from cancers of the gastrointestinal tract, liver, and organs involved in the production of blood
(Greenfacts, 2017).
Clean Development Mechanim and Landfill Gas (LFG) Projects
The Kyoto Protocol, an international agreement signed between developed and developing
nations on December 11, 1997, was one of the first promising steps taken on a global scale to
address climate change. Although climate change is a global concern that will ultimately affect
both developed and developing nations, the Protocol placed a significantly heavier burden on
developed nations to take affirmative and concrete actions to significantly reduce their share of
GHG (United Nations Framework on Climate Change, 2014). The authors of the Kyoto Protocol
ackowledged that developing/emerging nations have less of a participatory/active role in the
emission of GHG. As a result, they drafted different guidelines that Annex I countries
(developed countries) and non- Annex I parties (developing/emerging countries) would follow in
order to curb GHG emissions thus addressing global warming (Ellis et al., 2007). These
emission comittments hold both groups accountable while still allowing non-Annex I countries
to continue to aim towards economic growth/ development, while still shying away from fossil-
26
fuel based technologies.
With climate change being a global concern and a challenge that will adversely affect both
developped and developing nations, it quickly became apparent that a consensus needed to be
reached in order to address global emissions. The Green Fund Development (GFD) was
developed for countries to meet their designated target emissions by funding mitigation projects
in the developing world (Lecoq et al., 2007). However, it received a lot of push -back from
Annex I countries who were very weary of the financial penalties iimposed when they did not
meet their emissions reductions goals. After discussions to find a fair compromise that would
encompass all parties’ needs and expectations while still holding true to the primary objective of
the Kyoto protocol, Article 12 of the agreement was finally incorporated on December 11th
1997. The implementation of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) marked one of the
turning points of the Kyoto Protocol agreements.
The CDM acknowledges that there are clear differences between the Global North (Annex I
countries) and the Global South (non-Annex countries) when it comes to GHG emissions and
that’s the reason why a cooperation (to reach development without compromising the climate
and jeapodizing the environment) between the former and the latter had to be strongly
encouraged (Ellis, 2007). The CDM then allows developed countries to purchase emission
reduction credits by financing and supporting mitigation projects and programs in developing
countries. The purchase of credits also helps the developed countries which have exceeded their
allowed emission quotas to offset emissions by financing sustainable projects in the developing
world.
One of the main focuses and sub-components of the CDM has been tailored to the solid
waste industry, more specifically the MSW. It has been developed with the idea of assisting
27
developing countries in the process of implementating a more sustainable framework in the
management of their solid waste by harvesting the LFG to produce electricity. For example, in
China, 26 LFG projects have been implemented, with a production capacity of 56. 8 MW, as a
result of the CDM (Chen et al., 2010).
LFG Projects – an opportunity to boost electricity production in developing countries
It is estimated that a staggering 1.3 billion people around the world do not have access to
electricity ; 85% of those live in the countryside and rural areas (The Economist, 2010). Because
access to electricity has been used as a proxy for development and economic growth by
international organizations like the United Nations, it should not come as a surprise that most of
the people without electriticy access live in Sub-Saharan Africa and South-East Asia (Economic
Consulting Associates, 2014).
As previously stated, developed and developing countries have reached a consensus to
gradually decrease their use and dependence on fossil fuels to produce and meet electricity
needs. The production of energy in developing countries constitutes a challenge because it
requires a lot of infrastructure and building that infrastructure requires vast financial resources.
Even so, if the methane generated from the already existing landfills in the developing world can
be captured and successfully converted to energy, it could answer the ever-lasting questions and
challenges of energy production and access in those countries (Scarlat et al., 2015; CDM
Investment Letter, 2008).
Apart from their environmental benefits, LFG projects also embed social and economic
benefits that can positively impact the lives of both the workers and the communities living
nearby. Among those benefits are the creation of jobs, a successful transition from the status of
28
unregulated landfills/ dumps to sanitary landfills, access to affordable electricity, and a boost in
the economy. The only disadvantage that the municipalitlies and waste companies need to take
into consideration when implementing these projets is the displacement of all the workers who
both live and work on the dumps. A thoughtful planning should incorporate a relocation and a
reinsertion/ reconversion into the sanitary landfills so that they do not lose their only way of
making a decent and honest living.
29
Chapter 4: Methods
The primary method used for the research of the thesis was a thorough review of the current
literature pertinent to the current issues related to the handling and disposal of MSW in
developing countries. First of all I analyzed documents written by international instances such as
the World Bank and looked at the socio-economic mechanims such as urbanization,
globalization, occidentalization and how they contributed significantly to the increase in MSW.
Second, I analyzed the literature about the techniques used by developing and developed nations
to dispose of waste. I focused on the terminology used to differenciate the widening gap
exisiting between the two: landfilling for developed countries and dumping for developing
countries. For the second half of the thesis, I then analyzed the environmental issues that are
associated with dumping waste instead of adequately disposing of it (methane emissions,
contamination of the groundwater, contraction of diseases such as cholera, dysenteria). Then, I
studied the literature written about the Clean Development Mechanism, an instrumental tool in
helping to implement Landfill Gas Project, a technique to recover and put to good use the
methane generated from MSW. For that purpose, I looked at landfill mining to recover materials
in open dumps. In order to address and mitigate methane emissions, I looked at policies related
to landfill gas extraction for energy. Finally, based on all the information found, I formulated
recommendations and informed policies that could be used as guidelines for Mbeubeuss. An
aborted process to implement an LFG project was started a decade ago but it was never carried
out.
30
Chapter 5: Landfill Mining
"Can implementing the three R’s- reduce, recycle, reuse, save you money ? If you only
implemented the three R’s in your kitchen, you would save money."
Catherine Pulsifer
Commodities such as plastics, metals, glass, paper, and food are constantly discarded into in
landfills. Often times, those commodities are relatively new and could potentially be offered a
new life if refurbished and fixed. Landfill mining, the practice of sorting out, digging and
reclaiming materials that have been thrown away can also be a great source of revenue for
developing countries (Asotin County, 2017).
In addition, landfills can be mined for their metals. There are two categories of metals: rare
and precious ones. Zinc, copper, silver, gold, cobalt et cetera are juxtaposed with the adjective
precious for a reason that already gives it away; they have a very high monetary value because
they are always in high-demand (Krook et al., 2012). Rare earth metals (REEs), a group of
seventeen chemical elements, are of tantamount importance to manufacturing companies and are
used in daily products consumers use such as cell phones, computers, and tablets. From an
ecological and environmental standpoint, there are less damages to the environment when
extracting and recuperating what is already "out there" and at arm’s reach rather than finding
and producing new supply sources (Wagner & Raymond, 2015; Dutta et al., 2016). By
repurposing the metals buried at the landfills, water and energy are sources are also preserved
and conserved. Furthermore, computer and cellphone manufacturers have been outsourcing the
rare and precious metals from developing countries like the Democratic Republic of Congo
(DRC). In the DRC, the majority of the workers extracting cobalt used in manufacturing
computers are children, who work in absolutely inhumane and horrible conditions: no PPE,
31
long days of work for very minimal revenue (Kelly, 2016). Therefore, by favoring landfill
mining over producing and extracting new supply sources, manufacturingcompanies can stop
supporting child labor.
Another added benefit that is also important to take into account is the cost savings associated
with the extraction/recuperation process as opposed to the development of new supply sources;
the fomer being cheaper than the latter, which requires a lot of financial expenditure.
With access to higher education still being a challenge for poor people, the chances of making
a decent living become ipso facto very slim. The only viable alternatives for the uneducated
youth are jobs from the informal sector, including working at Mbeubeuss selling precious metals
and other valuable commodities to manufacturing companies. The informal sector brings a nonnegligible contribution to Senegal’s national G.D.P, accounting for 41.6% (Asoko Insight, 2015)
However, that success is over-shadowed by preventable accidents and/or deaths that occur at
the site. According to Abdoulaye Gueye, Chief of Staff to the Minister of Labor:
despite its contribution to the national economy, it is marked by severe deficits,
such as” the
precarious working conditions which are unsuitable and
dangerous” and, the exclusion from formal social security system and laws
governing health, safety and motherhood” (Agence de Presse Senegalese, 2015).
Landfill mining is already a reality at Mbeubeuss. However, it needs more attention from
both the municipalities and the Senegalese government. In other words, for Mbeubeuss to be
stripped off its unfortunate "ecological timebomb" badge of shame that has drawn negative
international attention and scrutiny, the opportunities and assets it could present need to be
presented as such. Mbeubeuss and other unregulated dumps/landfills need to be looked as
"reservoirs of econonomically valuable resources" (Krook et al.,2012). For example, the
workers there make between $600 - $725, which is significantly higher than some of the
32
educated positions (Sy, 2002). Mbeubeuss injects approximately 13 million francs CFA into the
economy every month, according to its coordinator. Due to the significant revenues it generates,
if strong policies, coupled with accompanying/preventative measures to better protect the
workers, landfill mining in Senegal could be an added bonus to the electriciy generated from the
waste. Additionally, landfill mining can help "increasing landfill space, reclaim land, extract
methane gas" (Krook et al., 2012; Astosin, 2017).
Although landfill mining stems from concepts of preservation, effective resource management
and conservation, the sustainability component had yet to be fully incorporated. Indeed, the term
Enhanced Landfill Mining ( ELFM) was not coined until the year 2000 (Asotin, 2017). ELFM
focuses on the recovery of the materials both as a source of energy and an economic stream
(resell raw materials) (Wolfsberg et al., 2014; Krook et al., 2012; Asotin, 2017).
Figure 10: Enhanced Landfill Mining
Source: Jones et al., 2011
With all the benefits listed, landfill mining presents a lot of attractive benefits that developing
countries ought to incorporate into the managerial policies and procedures of their landfills and
33
open dumps.
Landfill Gas Extraction for Energy
To understand how landfill gas (LFG) can be captured and turned into a reliable source of
energy, it is necessary to understand how methane is generated at a landfill. The Landfill
Methane Outreach Program, a component of the U.S. EPA, is a nationwide group of volunteers
who has teamed up with experts from the solid waste industry to educate the general public about
methane emissions from landfills. In June 2017, the Landfill Methane Outreach Program
published a handbook called the LFG Energy Development Handbook, to help the general public
understand the driving mechanisms behind the production of methane at landfills. The primary
goal of the handbook is to raise awareness about the global warming potential from MSW and to
incite the public to take a more active stand by looking at what they throw away.
With that specific puprose in mind, the handbook covers the process of converting methane into
electricity in depth. The gas from MSW is produced in four distinct phases. During the first one,
aerobic bacteria (bacteria that only lives in the presence of oxygen) is present. The bacteria
gradually breaks down the chains of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates until there is no more
oxygen available. At that stage, the bacteria in the landfill produce carbon dioxideand three
other byproducts methane, ethanol, and now hydrogen ( Landfill Outreach Methane Program,
2017). At the third stage, the organic acids that were produced during the second stage combine
to produce acetate which, in turn, enables the formation of additional methane. During the last
phase, LFG is formed, with a composition of about 50% methane, 45% carbon dioxide and about
2 - 5 % of other gases (Landfill Outreach Methane Program, 2017).
34
Figure 11: A simplified diagram of the methane to electricity production from the deposit stage
at the landfill to the conversion and production and transmission through the electric grid.
Source: http://landfillwaste.blogspot.com/
The process of extracting and recuperating LFG to produce both and electricity and heat in
the developed world has asserted itself as one of the promising techniques to progressively stop
the heavy reliance on fossil-fuels which has been one of the driving forces and mechanisms
behind industrualization. As of this writing, there are about 955 landfills in the world that have
LFG projects in their energy production portfolios. The majority of the projects are housed in
the United States, followed by Europe (Germany and the UK) (Yip et al., 2008).
It is estimated that one million tons of MSW can produce roughly 300 cubic feet of LFG
(Landfill Methane Outreach Program, 2017). In 2005 alone, it was estimated that the LFG
projects around the world generated nine billion KWH of energy (Yip et al., 2008). Energy
production from LFG is all the more promising because it is a sustainable process, and can still
be a viable source of energy even 20 - 30 years after the waste has been landfilled.
35
The collection of LFG can be done using two different processes: vertical and horizontal drill
trenches. Each method is used depending on the conditions and nature of the site. For exaample,
horizontal drilling and wells are implemented in deeper landfills (Landfill Outreach Methane
Program, 2017). Vertical wells are the most widespread technique to collect LFG and that is in
part due to its rather simple requirements: the wellheads are hooked to lateral pipes which then
carry the gaz to a tank through the use of a blower to propulse it (See Figures 12 and 13) (
Landfill Outreach Program, 2017).
Figure 12: Vertical LFG well collection
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landfill_gas_emission_reduction_in_Brazil
36
Figure 13: Horizontal LFG collection
Source: http://rcrcommodities.com/?page_id=598
For the commercial recovery of LFG, a landfill should: (1) recive at the minimum, 200 tons of
waste per day, and (2) have a minium capacity of 500,000 tons (Johannessem, 1999; Ouedraogo,
2005).
Compared to other clean and renewable energies, LFG is significantly cheaper. The "Capital
Cost Review of Power Generation Technologies" written by the Western Electric Council
actually looks at various renewable energy technology production and analyzes the capital cost
of energy (kW) produced per dollar amount. In other words, the report compared methods to
determine which was cheaper to implement. The LFG capital cost were estimated to be around
$2,800/kW whereas hydrothermal was coined at $5,900/kW (Western Electric Council, 2014).
In the case of Senegal, I would expect relative cost comparisons to be similar although the exact
figures might be different. And, with Mbeubeuss, there will be a ready fuel supply.
37
Chapter 6: Recommendations for Mbeubeuss : Why it makes sense to implement a
Landfill Gas-to-Energy project at the landfill.
Recurrent power outages in Senegal
I established the correlation between access to energy and poverty at the beginning of this
thesis. They go inevitably go hand in hand, and sustainability, whether economic, social or
environmental, cannot be achieved without electricity. The United Nations defined access to
electricity as one of the Millenium Development Goals (MDG), setting an optimal target for
everyone in developing countries to have access to electricity by the year 2030 (Karekezi et al.,
2009)
During the summer of 2012, power outages in Senegal spurred national riots and the problem
has only worsened since then. The youth descended in the streets, ransacking and destroying
public goods to express their anger and frustration about the constant outages, outages that could
last 48 hours and sometimes even longer. SENELEC (Societe Nationale d’ Electricite du
Senegal), the electrical power company owned by the Senegalese government, issued a
statement that there were two main reasons for the outages. First of all, SENELEC faced
challenges in meeting the voracious demand from a constantly growing population and second,
they were struggling with the oil purchases, due to its very high prices. (It should be noted that
the country’s current electric power supply and generation primarily comes from imported fossil
fuels (World Bank, 2015). In addition, their equipment was old and defective (Causes.com).
That situation negatively impacted not only the country’s economy but also the health and wellbeing of the populations.
Indeed, many of the public hospitals are not equipped with power generators in case of
electricity outages. The generators need fossil fuels to run and with the high prices associated
with them, the health institutions often find themselves unable afford those back up supplies of
38
electricity. For that reason, a few cases of deaths had been noted among premature babies who
were connected to eletrical equipment to keep them alive and who unfortunately died when the
power went out (Seneweb, 2010).
In 2013, former President Barack Obama, created the intitiative Power Africa with the aim to
propulse and bolster Africa’s energy production and access to electricity for its populations.
Power Africa’s primary mission is to:
. . .add more than 30.000 megawatss of cleaner, more efficient electricity
generation capacity and 60 million new home and business connections. Power
Africa works to unlock the substantial power of wind, solar, hydropower, natural
gas and geothermal resources on the continent] (USAID, 2016).
Power Africa’s main mission is completely en phase with the implemention of LFG
projects. It could also be a viable source of financial support that the Senegalese
government could look into to support the project.
Senegal has about 731 MW of energy production available and ready to go and needs
approximately 864 MW to be self-sufficiant and meet the national demand. However, that
amount is considerable smaller than what is necessary to serve the needs of the population (see
Figure 14 below) (USAID, 2016). In contrast to the nine billion MW that the LFG can generate,
39
which is a significant difference.
Figure 14: Senegal’s Electrical Energy Productivity and Access Profile
Source: https://www.usaid.gov/powerafrica/senegal
Plan Senegal Emergert: strong emphasis on clean and green energy
The Senegalese government has come to the realization that in order to attain development and
economic growth, there has to be a switch from the dependency on imported fossil fuels to clean,
green and renewable energy sources. The Plan Senegal Emergent, a vision that President
Macky Sall began to think about soon after his election, has sustainability at its core (Plan
Senegal Emergent, 2014). The economic roadmap has a budget of about 9700 billion francs
CFA and it is heavily grounded in the development of the six following axes– each of which has
been allocated a budget and has been ranked per its importance.
1. Infrastrucutre and transport services (621 billion CFA)
40
2. Energy (304 billion CFA)
3. Agriculture (261.8 billion CFA)
4. Education and training (257.3 billion CFA)
5. Drinking water and sanitation (251.6 billion CFA)
6. Health (124.6 billion CFA)
Source: Ministry of Economy, Finance and Planning, 2014
Two things are worth mentioning when it comes to the choice of the priority each item has on
the list. The energy sector has been ranked second on the agenda and allocated a signifcant
portion of the funding. This indicates the importance it has for the country: sustainable
development in any shape or form cannot be reached without a significant shift in the way
energy is produced. It also conveys the message that the Senegalese government has the firm
intention to follow through and say true to all the committments made during the COP21
(Department of Economy, Finances and Planning, 2014). The objectives completely feed into
each other and, like a ripple effect, have profound positive repercussions on each other.
Transitioning from fossil fuels to clean energy sources will not only be able to solve the
everlasting problem of electricity production and access, but it will also create steady and goodpaying jobs and create a better and healthier environment for all. In addition, through
educational programs added in the national curriculu, it will raise awareness, thus allowing the
country to address the issue from a bottom-up approach (education is where it needs to happen).
As of August 9, 2017, the Senegalese government and the World Bank have signed a 60
million dollar partnership agreement to effectively and effectiently transition Mbeubeuss from an
ecological catastrophe to a ‘green lung’. The goals of the partnership are to structurize
41
Mbeubeuss by delocalizing the landfill, find integrated solutions to address the environemental
and economic issues that are related to it. Most importantly, it is also imperative to find socioeconomic solutions to palliate to the 2000 informal workers who make a living by salvaging the
material and reselling it.
42
Chapter 7: Conclusion
Landfills--whether they are sanitary or even open dumps--represent an incredile source of
energy wealth if exploited to their full potential. To effectively implement a landfill-to-energy
project at the Mbeubeuss dump in Senegal requires that several mechanism occur organically
and simultaneously. First of all, the population must be educated about waste; a significant shift
in the relationship between the population and waste needs to take place. In other words, people
need to stop viewing waste as useless, dirty and smelly and instead see it as a "gold mine" with
all the environmental, economic and social benefits it can bring into a community. As part of
that education, municipalities and the Senegalese government must implement recycling and
composting programs in the national curriulum, to engage students in the establishing healthy
and sustainable habits.
The second step would be to restructure Mbeubeuss; not necessarily transform it with the
latest state-of-the-art equipment, but rather to make use of what is already out there and make
improvements, changes that will accomodate not only the workers but also the populations living
nearby. A business partner would gradually start constructing the facilities and equipment for
the landfill-to-energy operation. To ensure that funds stay within the country and have positive
impacts on the local economy, preference would be given to companies using local
manufacturing and with local employees. The partner could provide or arrange for training for
those living near the site.
The World Bank has already committed to financing 60 million dollars to work on the
project. However, Senegalese businessmen should also invest in the project so as to decrease the
loan from the bank, to show their support for energy production from waste, and to boost the
local economy.
In the end, by implementing this project at Mbeubeuss, Senegal could become the pioneer and
43
leader in West Africa in an effective management of MSW and LFG project. It will be able to
support and meet the demand of the growing population and perhaps in the future could sell
electricity generated to its neighbors (Gambia, Mali, Mauritania).
As journalist Rose George beautifully stated: "waste is a resource we are wasting". With
LFG being implemented at Mbeubeuss, this a chance to change things around and for Senegal to
write a new page in its environmental stewardship book.
44
References
Achengenk, (E). (2003). Globalization, Urbanization and Municipal Solid Waste Management in
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Agence de Presse Senegalaise, (2015). Senegal: The informal sector accounts for 41.6% of the
GDP
https://asokoinsight.com/news/senegal-the-informal-sector-accounts-for-41-6-of-the-gdp
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