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Title (dcterms:title)
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Eng
Working Toward Effective Environmental Education for All: A Case Study of the Friends of Tryon Creek State Park
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Date (dcterms:date)
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2009
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Creator (dcterms:creator)
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Eng
Todis, Laura
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Subject (dcterms:subject)
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Eng
Environmental Studies
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extracted text (extracttext:extracted_text)
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WORKING TOWARD EFFECTIVE ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION FOR ALL:
A CASE STUDY OF THE FRIENDS OF TRYON CREEK STATE PARK
by
Laura Todis
A Thesis
Submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree
Master of Environmental Study
The Evergreen State College
June 2009
i
This Thesis for the Master of Environmental Study Degree
by
Laura Todis
has been approved for
The Evergreen State College
by
______________________________
Jean MacGregor, M.S.
Member of the Faculty
_____________________________
Edward A. Whitesell, Ph.D.
Member of the Faculty
______________________________
Stephanie Wagner
Executive Director of The Friends of Tryon Creek State Park
ii
Abstract
Working Toward Effective Environmental Education for All:
A Case study of the Friends of Tryon Creek State Park
Laura Todis
Many people consider environmental education (EE) the most promising solution
to globally accelerating environmental problems. However, while many EE programs in
the United States have succeeded in serving White, middle-class students, a high
percentage of these same programs fail to reach low-income and diverse communities.
The Friends of Tryon Creek State Park is a non-profit organization that conducts
EE programs at Tryon Creek State Park, a forested natural area in Portland, Oregon. Like
many EE programs, The Friends of Tryon Creek (FTC) is concerned with serving the
needs and interests of more diverse audiences, but has achieved limited success. Because
of the increasing demographic of Latinos in the area, the Director of FTC expressed
particular interest in analyzing FTC‘s relationship with Latinos. Because I wanted the
research to reflect the interests of FTC, and because little research has been conducted in
providing effective environmental education to Latinos, I focused my research on this
population.
The research combines a variety of qualitative methodologies including eighteen
interviews from three groups: EE professionals; staff of FTC and Tryon Creek State Park;
and teachers and partner organizations. In addition, my recommendations reflect a
literature review of diversity in EE, and quantitative analysis of FTC‘s financial and
attendance data.
My conclusions from this research suggest a spectrum of recommendations of
how FTC could improve service to Latinos. These recommendations are applicable not
only to FTC, but to many other EE organizations interested in improving their service to
diverse audiences, in general.
In addition, my research suggests that if diverse audiences, including Latino
communities, are to be provided with EE on a meaningful level, their access to effective
EE must be analyzed on a regional scale. While it is important for individual EE
organizations such as FTC to strive to make improvements to their service of diverse
audiences, it would be most efficient and effective if these efforts could be coordinated
within a network of EE organizations.
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 1
CHAPTER 1: Environmental education for all ............................................................ 7
1.1
Environmental education .................................................................................... 7
1.2
The development of environmental education ................................................... 8
1.3
Environmental education in the United States: A crisis of environmental
literacy .............................................................................................................. 10
1.4
The current development of environmental education in the United States ..... 12
1.5
Environmental education for diverse audiences ............................................... 16
1.6
Effective environmental education for diverse audiences ................................ 19
1.7
The role of nature centers in providing environmental education to diverse
audiences .................................................................................................................... 23
1.8
Latino communities and environmental education ........................................... 26
CHAPTER 2: Environmental education for all in Portland, Oregon:
A background to the case study of The Friends of Tryon Creek................................ 29
2.1
Demographics of Portland ................................................................................ 29
2.2
Environmental education in Portland ............................................................... 31
2.3
An introduction to Tryon Creek State Natural Area and The Friends of
Tryon Creek................................................................................................................ 32
2.4
2.3.1
Natural history of Tryon Creek State Park ............................................. 33
2.3.2
Social history of Tryon Creek State Park ............................................... 34
Programs offered by Friends of Tryon Creek ................................................... 36
CHAPTER 3: Methods .................................................................................................. 39
3.1
Case study ......................................................................................................... 41
3.2
Utilization-focused evaluation .......................................................................... 42
3.3
Illuminative evaluation ..................................................................................... 43
3.4
Literature review and interviews ...................................................................... 45
CHAPTER 4: Interview and research data.................................................................. 48
4.1
Interviews with EE professionals about EE and diversity in general ............... 48
iii
4.1.1 Challenges, failures and barriers to serving diverse audiences ............... 48
4.1.2 Recommendations for improved outreach .............................................. 49
4.2
Interviews and information from Tryon Creek State Park and The Friends of
Tryon Creek ...................................................................................................... 56
4.2.1
State Park staff interviews ...................................................................... 56
4.2.1.1 Challenges, failures and barriers to serving diverse
audiences................................................................................................. 56
4.2.1.2 Successes in serving diverse audiences ..................................... 57
4.2.1.3 Recommendations for improved outreach ................................. 58
4.2.2
Friends of Tryon Creek staff interviews and information from FTC
records..................................................................................................... 59
4.2.2.1 Current service to diverse audiences ......................................... 60
4.2.2.2 Challenges, failures and barriers to serving diverse
audiences................................................................................................. 63
4.3
Interviews with teachers and partner organizations involved with Latino
communities ..................................................................................................... 65
4.3.1
School Programs ..................................................................................... 65
4.3.1.1 Successes of serving Latino communities ................................. 65
4.3.1.2 Patterns of challenge or failure in serving Latino
communities ............................................................................................ 66
4.3.1.3 Ideas for future improvement of school programs ..................... 67
4.3.2
Partnerships............................................................................................. 69
CHAPTER 5: Recommendations and discussion ........................................................ 74
5.1
5.2
General Recommendations ............................................................................... 74
5.1.1
External (Outreach)................................................................................. 75
5.1.2
Internal (Organizational, Staff, Administrative) ..................................... 76
5.1.3
Curricular and pedagogical ..................................................................... 77
5.1.4
Assessment and evaluation ..................................................................... 78
Recommendations for school groups................................................................ 81
5.2.1
External (Outreach)................................................................................. 81
5.2.2
Internal (Organizational, Staff, Administrative) ..................................... 82
5.2.3
Curricular and pedagogical ..................................................................... 83
5.2.4
Assessment and evaluation ..................................................................... 83
iv
5.3
Recommendations for partnerships .................................................................. 85
5.3.1 External (Outreach) .................................................................................. 85
5.3.2 Internal (Organizational, Staff, Administrative)....................................... 86
5.3.3 Curricular and pedagogical ............................................................................... 86
5.3.4 Assessment and evaluation ............................................................................... 86
CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................... 88
WORKS CITED ............................................................................................................. 94
v
Figures
Figure 1.
Approximate location of Tryon Creek State Park ......................................... 2
Figure 2.
Map of Tryon Creek State Park ..................................................................... 3
Figure 3.
Percentage of population that is White by 2000 census .............................. 30
Figure 4.
Percentage of population that is Hispanic by 2000 census .......................... 30
Figure 5.
Average income by 2000 census ................................................................. 31
Figure 6.
Percentage of students who qualify for free and reduced lunch at schools
who visited FTC in 2008 ............................................................................. 62
Figure 7.
Percentage of students who identify as Latino at schools visiting FTC in
2008 ............................................................................................................. 62
Tables
Table 1.
General recommendations for FTC to improve service to Latino
communities............................................................................................... ..79
Table 2.
Recommendations for FTC to better serve Latino communities through
its school programs ...................................................................................... 84
Table 3.
Recommendations for FTC to better serve Latino communities through
partnerships .................................................................................................. 87
vi
Acknowledgments
Thank you to Jean MacGregor, for guidance, encouragement, and advice through
the progression of researching and writing my thesis. Thank you to Ted Whitesell, for
similar support, particularly in editing my work. Thank you to Stephanie Wagner and all
the staff of The Friends of Tryon Creek State Park, for their cooperation, assistance and
for inspiration. Thank you to the many environmental educators, whom I interviewed
formally and informally, for their gracious assistance. And, finally, thank you to my
supportive friends and family, for generally helping me through the process of this
project.
vii
Introduction
Environmental education programs for youth have gained popularity throughout
the United States in recent decades. Many people have become concerned about the
acceleration of environmental problems and the simultaneous lack of environmental
literacy amongst the public and have turned to environmental education as a solution.
Programs designed for both classroom and non-formal educational environments, such as
nature centers, have attempted to provide quality environmental education to youth
throughout the country.
As these programs have developed, many programs have succeeded in serving
White, middle class students, but a high percentage of these same programs fail to reach
low-income and diverse communities. As a result, in recent years, some environmental
education practitioners have dedicated their attention to the specific needs of low income
and diverse communities. Many programs, particularly urban ones, have focused
exclusively on serving these communities. Further, many more general programs have
attempted to adapt their organizations and curricula to better serve low-income and
racially and ethnically diverse audiences. However, most programs that do not cater
explicitly to these audiences have had little success in attracting and serving the needs of
low-income and diverse audiences on a meaningful scale. According to environmental
education professional Jean MacGregor, ―This is an ongoing, and as yet unresolved,
serious issue for the environmental education profession, in general‖ (MacGregor, 2009).
Tryon Creek State Natural Area is a forested, urban state park located in an
affluent, mostly White neighborhood in Portland, Oregon (see Figures 1 and 2, following
pages). The park was formed in 1970 through a grassroots campaign that succeeded in
preventing the area from being developed, so that it could provide a place for the
exploration and study of nature for Portland residents. Today, the founding organization,
Friends of Tryon Creek State Park (FTC), is a non-profit organization that works in
conjunction with the Oregon State Park Service to run programs in the park. The group
has developed an array of programs, including environmental education camps and
courses, and volunteer and internship positions for people in the Portland area.
While the group has overtly attempted to reach out to diverse communities in its
programs, like many similar environmental education programs, it has achieved its
greatest success in serving the needs of White, middle- and upper-class audiences who
live near the park. When I was employed at the park as an instructor of summer programs
in 2008, I became interested in using Tryon Creek as a case study to examine what
1
changes an environmental education program might want to consider in order to better
serve more diverse audiences.
Fig.1. Approximate location of Tryon Creek State Park (indicated by star)
Source: www.googlemaps.com
2
Fig. 2. Map of Tryon Creek State Park
Source: www.oregonstateparks.org
3
Although I was aware that individuals at the organization were interested in
working with diverse populations, and that the organization had a variety of scholarship
and partnership arrangements designed to attract low-income students, as an instructor I
noticed that the staff and students in the program appeared remarkably homogenous.
When I approached the administration of FTC with my interest in evaluating its past and
current efforts at serving diverse audiences, I was met with enthusiasm. The leadership of
the FTC expressed eagerness for making changes to improve access to its programs, the
effectiveness of its education efforts, and the longevity of its relationships with lowincome, ethnically and racially diverse audiences.
As I designed my thesis project, my goals were to identify organizational and
curricular changes FTC could make to its education programs to better serve the specific
needs and interests of more diverse communities, to foster sustained relationships with
these communities, and to evaluate the success of its efforts. I hoped that both my
research model and my results would be of use not only to FTC, but also to a variety of
similar environmental education programs seeking to attract and serve diverse
communities.
I based my research on several qualitative research methodologies established for
educational research with the desired outcome of useful results. I used case study, a
strategy of examining one organization or individual in depth, to be explained on page x
(Stake, 1995); utilization-based research, an applied and participatory approach to be
explained on page x (Patton, 2002); illuminative evaluation, a technique for progressive
focusing, to be explained on page x (Parlett, 1997); and data triangulation from in-depth
interviews with three categories of interviewees. The three interview categories were
environmental education professionals in the region, people directly associated with
Tryon Creek State Park, and current or potential partners or audiences for the park. My
research methodologies encouraged me to explore avenues of information as new themes
emerged, allowing me to develop my specific research questions as I progressed.
For example, while I originally set out to establish how FTC could better serve
diverse audiences in general, I quickly realized the merits of focusing on one target
audience for the study. During one of my first interviews with an administrator at FTC,
we discussed what she was hoping the organization could get out of my project. Through
initial casual conversations setting up the project, we had already established that the
project was to focus on improving service to diverse audiences. However, it immediately
became clear that she was interested in focusing on improving the organization‘s service
4
specifically to Latino communities, as she had noticed an increase in this particular
demographic in the immediate vicinity of the park and on the trails. She stated, ―There
are a lot of myths about how Hispanics recreate − that they like to get together around
picnic tables for example. I want us to get beyond the myths.‖
It made sense to me as a researcher to shift my focus to how FTC could better
serve the Latino population specifically, as literature indicates that recommendations
based on research findings are more often followed if the group being researched is
involved in the design and implementation of the research (Patton, 1997). Further, I had
noticed that while there is general research about the importance of better reaching
diverse audiences in environmental education programs, and even some practical
guidelines, little has been done to develop useful recommendations for reaching specific
target audiences. The research that has focused on specific target audiences has not,
generally, examined Latino communities, although this population is growing rapidly in
many areas of the United States.
The result of my research is a spectrum of recommendations, ranging from the
simple to the more complex. The recommendations are designed to be of use not only to
The Friends of Tryon Creek, but also to other environmental organizations concerned
with reaching diverse audiences. In fact, one of my recommendations is that in order for
an individual EE organization to effectively serve diverse audiences it must be able to
analyze its potential role in providing EE to these audiences on a regional scale. This
recommendation implies that networking amongst EE organizations is an essential step in
working towards providing effective EE to diverse audiences. Further, through my
research I discovered that coming up with a plan to provide better access to quality
environmental education for an audience requires not only looking at the issue from this
community scale; it also requires confronting systematic inequalities and pervasive
patterns on a societal scale. While I have pointed to a few solutions at a community scale,
it is overwhelming to imagine trying to address all the complex causes throughout society
associated with the lack of quality environmental education for diverse audiences.
When considering these vast issues, I like to keep in mind something one
interviewee mentioned: ―When you think about diversity, it‘s all wound up in bigger
problems. The inequalities are tied to these ingrained patterns we can‘t even see. It gets
overwhelming. You just don‘t want to do anything to address things, because you don‘t
know where to start. I just try to look at baby steps so I don‘t shut it all out‖
(Anonymous EE professional). Providing access to quality environmental education on a
5
broad scale is a huge task, which will ultimately require the reevaluation of many
stereotypes and systematic disparities in our communities, if it is ever to truly be solved.
This overwhelming issue, however, can be solved, and one way to approach it is by
taking the small step of analyzing how one organization can better serve a specific
population, and how one community might consider approaching the issue. I see this case
study as a baby step towards providing quality environmental education for all.
6
Chapter 1: Environmental education for all
1.1 Environmental education
Science fiction writer H.G. Wells is widely quoted in discussions promoting
environmental education (hereafter EE) for a statement he made in his 1920 book, The
Outline of History. He wrote, ―Human history becomes more and more a race between
education and catastrophe‖ (Weilbacher, 2008, p.4). This quote resonates in modern
times, an era when our planet is facing disturbing and alarmingly palpable environmental
changes, including climate change, the encroachment of invasive species, and toxic
pollution. As these changes have been increasingly researched and exposed, there has
been much speculation as to how to solve these current environmental problems and
prevent future catastrophe.
It is tempting to hope that the recent trend of attention to environmental issues
will lead to positive changes for the environment. Indeed, the barrage of media attention
to environmental issues is encouraging. According to a study conducted by the National
Environmental Education and Training Foundation (NEETF), in collaboration with the
Roper polling firm, simple knowledge can be associated with some changes in consumer
decisions, such as a 10% increase in the likelihood of saving energy in the home and a
50% increase in recycling rate (Coyle, 2005). However, this exposure to facts alone is not
linked with developing a positive relationship with the environment, nor the solving of
complex environmental problems (Coyle, 2005). In fact, research indicates that ―too
much environmental knowledge (particularly relating to the various global crises) can be
disempowering, without a deeper and broader learning process taking place‖ (Sterling,
2004, p.19).
Solutions to problems and responsible behavior towards the environment are
associated with what is described as environmental literacy, and many believe that it can
be achieved on a wide scale only through strategic, deliberate efforts in education that
includes the opportunity to gain a sense of involvement and ownership of the
environment (Coyle, 2005; Hart, 1997). This idea has been incorporated into formal
international statements defending the importance of EE. The conference celebrating the
10th anniversary of the Tbilisi conference opened with the address:
In the long run nothing significant will happen to reduce
local and international threats to the environment unless
widespread public awareness is aroused concerning the
essential links between environmental quality and the
continued satisfaction of human needs. Human action
7
depends upon motivation, which depends upon
widespread understanding. This is why we feel it is so
important that everyone becomes environmentally
conscious through proper environmental education
(UNESCO, 1987).
In response to concern over environmental problems and the lack of
environmental literacy, there has been a recent surge from the environmental movement,
educators, and the public in general, to reevaluate how to provide effective EE to all. This
recent interest in the development of effective EE is part of a history that can be traced
back several decades.
1.2 The development of environmental education
Literature points to a variety of origins behind modern EE, largely following
along with the environmental movement in general. In the United States, the earliest
origins of EE are often credited to the nature study craze of the Victorian era and
Theodore Roosevelt‘s presidency. Internationally, many consider Scottish botanist Sir
Patrick Geddes (1854-1933) to have pioneered early links between education and the
environment through his extensive incorporation of the outdoors in his education
strategy. Emerging from this ancestry, the first formal recorded use of the term
―environmental education‖ was documented in Paris in 1948, at a meeting of the
International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. However, the
first wave of interest in EE did not gain momentum until the 1970s when the confluence
of events such as the first Earth Day (1970), the publication of shocking books such as
Rachel Carson‘s Silent Spring (1962) and Paul Ehrlich‘s The Population Bomb (1968),
and several pollution incidences including the dramatic ignition of Cleveland‘s oilcontaminated Cuyahoga River (1969) stimulated widespread concern for the environment
(Palmer and Neal, 1994).
As people considered the possibility of EE as a solution to intimidating
environmental problems, several international meetings sought to define and shape the
agenda for EE‘s advancement and propel the idea forward. Three meetings stand out as
being particularly influential in the founding of EE.
First, at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, held in Stockholm in
1972, a declaration was prepared that laid out 7 proclamations and 26 principles of EE.
This document was influenced by what is often described as the White, middle-class,
environmental movement prevalent in the United States during this period. However, it
8
also explicitly stated that ―education in environmental matters‖ should give ―due
consideration to the underprivileged‖ (Palmer and Neal, 1994, p.12).
In 1975, building from what had been suggested in Stockholm, the International
Workshop on Environmental Education, held in Belgrade, prepared the first
intergovernmental statement on EE. This formative document, ―The Belgrade Charter: A
Global Framework for Environmental Education,‖ established objectives of EE that are
maintained today. These objectives were to be understood within the overall agenda to,
―develop a world population that is aware of, and concerned about, the environment and
its associated problems, and which has the knowledge, skills, attitudes, motivations, and
commitment to work individually and collectively toward solutions of current problems
and the prevention of new ones‖ (UNESCO, 1975, p.3). The objectives established (and
later formally published) were specifically:
1. To foster awareness of, and concern about, economic,
social, political and ecological interdependence in urban
and rural areas.
2. To provide every person with opportunities to acquire
the knowledge, values, attitudes, commitment and skills
needed to protect and improve the environment.
3. To create new patterns of behavior of individuals,
groups and society as a whole towards the environment.
(UNESCO 1977, p.26)
Following the creation of the Belgrade charter, a third meeting, the Conference
on Environmental Education, held in Tbilisi in 1977, clarified the statements established
in Stockholm and Belgrade and further prepared recommendations for the development
of formal and non-formal EE throughout the world. The ideas generated at this event
have consistently served as the scaffold for EE, as it has developed at national and
international levels.
Environmental education was emphasized in many subsequent documents
including Our Common Future, the influential report from the World Commission on
Environment and Development produced in 1987; The World Conservation Strategy of
1980; and Agenda 21, produced at The Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in1992, which
outlined what nations should do to achieve sustainable development in the 21st century
(Palmer and Neal, 1994).
While, overall, EE has developed within the general framework laid out in
international meetings of the 1970s, in the United States the political and social climates
have specifically influenced how it has been shaped. In the late 1970s there was a push to
9
incorporate more ethical, political, and urban issues into EE; in the 1980s there was a
trend towards global issues; and in the 1990s ideas of sustainable development began to
be incorporated into EE (Sterling, 2004).
Most recently, in the United States, many practitioners of EE have been
disappointed by what EE programs have been able to achieve (Sterling, 2004). In the
United States the term ―environmental literacy‖ is widely used to describe responsible
attitudes and behaviors towards the environment. Despite decades of effort in the
implementation of EE, environmental literacy remains shockingly low (Coyle, 2005). In
the face of this perceived crisis of environmental literacy, the overall focus of the
development of EE over the past decade has been on how to improve EE‘s ability to
impart environmental literacy to all Americans.
1.3 Environmental education in the United States: A crisis of environmental
literacy
Environmental literacy describes a relationship with the environment beyond
simple awareness of environmental issues, and even beyond knowledge that influences
personal conduct. ―It starts out with framed information, but also involves imparting the
subject‘s underlying principles, the skills needed to investigate the subject, and an
understanding of how to apply that information‖ (Coyle, 2005, p. x). An environmentally
literate person is someone who not only understands and appreciates environmental
systems but can think critically about problems and devise solutions (NAAEE, 2004).
Research shows that most people in the United States are far from achieving
environmental literacy and, in fact, do not demonstrate even awareness of environmental
issues. According to the report by the NEETF, mentioned above, 80% of Americans are
heavily influenced by incorrect or outdated environmental myths, according to their poor
performance on a basic environmental literacy questionnaire (Coyle, 2005). For
example, it is estimated that 130 million Americans believe that hydropower is America‘s
top energy source (it actually accounts for only about 10%); 120 million people think that
disposable diapers fill the bulk of our landfills (actually they take up only about 1% of
landfill space); and 45 million believe the ocean is a source of fresh water (Coyle, 2005).
Environmental education aims to provide knowledge to correct these and other
shortcomings in environmental knowledge. However, according to the definition of EE
developed at Tbilisi, as opposed to media channels or traditional science education, EE
also aims to cultivate awareness, skills, attitudes, and participation − all hallmarks of
10
true environmental literacy (UNESCO, 1977). The Tbilisi declaration of 1977
describes these categories of EE‘s objectives:
Awareness—to help social groups and individuals
acquire an awareness and sensitivity to the total
environment and its allied problems.
Knowledge—to help social groups and individuals gain
a variety of experience in, and acquire a basic
understanding of, the environment and its associated
problems.
Attitudes—to help social groups and individuals acquire
a set of values and feelings of concern for the
environment and the motivation for actively
participating in environmental improvement and
protection.
Skills—to help social groups and individuals acquire the
skills for identifying and solving environmental
problems.
Participation—to provide social groups and individuals
with an opportunity to be actively involved at all levels
in working toward resolution of environmental problems
(UNESCO, 1977, p.26-27).
Quality EE can develop these characteristics by providing hands-on opportunities,
purposeful exposure to local and international issues, and the encouragement of direct
participation and critical thinking.
Although EE is relied upon for its ability to impart the essential qualities and
skills associated with environmental literacy, EE has thus far not been as effective in
achieving this goal as many believe it could be. Issues preventing the success of EE are
internationally debated; however, I will focus on how a few of these issues influence the
development of EE in the United States. Of the many issues that are constantly being
mulled over in academia and by practitioners, several issues stand out as most important
to address if EE is to fulfill its promise as an effective solution in the face of serious
environmental issues.
One widely debated issue is how EE should be incorporated into the education
process in order to be most effective. A second issue is whether it is more effective to
introduce global issues or to focus on local topics. A third issue central to the ability of
EE to develop a coherent approach is how EE defines its identity distinctly from other
movements and educational strategies such as education for sustainable development,
outdoor education, experiential education, and environmental justice. Finally, a matter of
11
overall importance, if EE hopes to achieve its goal of imparting environmental literacy to
all Americans, is the revelation that EE has not served all audiences equally. A
conversation has been opened regarding how EE can be more effective in reaching more
diverse audiences.
1.4 The current development of environmental education in the United States
The first issue currently attracting attention amongst those interested in EE is the
question of how EE should be incorporated into the established educational system.
While there are formal and informal, public and private avenues for EE, public schools
remain central to the administration of EE on a wide scale. Many people advocate for
incorporating EE throughout the traditional public school curriculum; others push for
declaring EE a distinct core subject in schools. Currently, EE is far from either of these,
although the United States has goals and definitions for environmental literacy and
education, which, for the most part, are in alignment with international strategies.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which administers the National
Environmental Education Act of 1990, states, ―A primary desired outcome of EE
programs is environmental literacy...Environmental education provides the capability and
skills over time to analyze environmental issues, engage in problem solving, and take
action to sustain and improve the environment. As a result, individuals are more capable
of weighing various sides of an environmental issue to make informed and responsible
decisions‖ (EPA, 2009, webpage). In response to public concern that EE is infused with
political values and messages, the EPA specifically emphasizes that EE does not
advocate a particular viewpoint or course of action (EPA, 2009; Coyle, 2005). ―Rather,
environmental education teaches individuals how to weigh various sides of an issue
through critical thinking and it enhances their own problem-solving and decision-making
skills‖ (EPA, 2009, webpage).
While EE, in the United States, has become more visible in public schools, partly
as a result of programs sponsored by the EPA, EE is generally offered as distinct
electives as opposed to integrated into other subjects. Many critics take issue with this
division, as separating EE from other subjects is associated with poor results at building
environmental literacy (Coyle, 2005; Palmer and Neal, 1996). According to an evaluation
of EE in the United States public school system conducted by the National
Environmental Education Teaching Foundation (NEETF), ―Although environmental
education is a popular elective and supplemental effort in more than half our schools, too
12
little of it actually gets delivered and then it is poorly sequenced so that environmental
learning does not effectively accumulate‖ (Coyle, 2005, p. xiv). Separating
environmental issues from other subjects creates a dichotomy, which implies that the
environment is distinct from everyday life. While making EE a core subject might ensure
adequate attention to content and continuity, the issue of a false dichotomy would still
remain with this strategy.
Another strategy advocated for the implementation of EE is its incorporation into
the existing curriculum. This strategy has already been experimented with widely outside
the United States, especially in the United Kingdom. In this strategy, environmental
skills and topics would be introduced through established core topics. Advocates of this
approach insist, ―An environmental dimension can be found in most aspects of education
− thus environmental education may be considered to be an approach to education which
incorporates considerations of the environment, rather than being a separate part of
education‖ (Palmer and Neal,1994, p.18) (italics in original). This strategy is also
popular amongst environmentally themed private and charter schools in the United
States.
While over half of public schools in the United States may be experimenting with
the introduction of some environmental curriculum, the environment has yet to achieve
consistent attention in these schools. There are several reasons why EE has not gotten
more attention within public schools. First, many teachers lack knowledge, resources, and
the flexibility in the classroom to introduce environmental curriculum either as a part of
established subject areas or as a distinct subject (Coyle, 2005). Another reason teachers
and schools might be hesitant to introduce environmental curriculum is fear that
introducing local environmental issues into the curriculum might elicit accusations of
political indoctrination (Hart 1997; Coyle, 2005).
Despite obstacles, the integration of EE into the school curriculum has many
advocates pushing for core subject status or integration. In the United States the political
environment, public demand, and the continued development of this conversation within
the education community will influence the direction of how EE is treated within the
educational system.
A second contemporary issue in the development of EE is whether EE should
focus on local or global environmental issues. In the United States, much EE has
traditionally focused on catastrophic problems of a global nature, such as deforestation in
the Amazon region. However, within the past decade there has been a movement to focus
13
EE on more local issues. While, unfortunately, little research has been done on how
people develop concern for the natural environment, what research does exist suggests
that people develop care for the environment from becoming familiar with their local
environment, from direct contact with it, and from becoming directly involved in taking
responsibility for environmental conflicts and problems (Palmer and Neal, 1994; Hart
1997).
Further, according to Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget, different educational
approaches are appropriate for different stages of cognitive development (Piaget, 1954).
According to this philosophy, developmentally appropriate activities that involve the
local environmental are the most effective way of approaching EE. For example, ―An
eight year old child who has once studied in detail the life of a pond and the many forces
impacting this ecosystem will be better prepared to understand large-scale ecological
issues than a child of the same age who has seen many films and read dozens of books on
the Amazon region‖ (Hart 1997, p.21).
In conjunction with the movement to localize environmental curriculum, there
has been particular attention in recent years on the educational advantages of providing
children with direct contact with their local environment. According to a review of recent
research, ―…there is considerable theoretical reason to believe that concern for the
environment is based on an affection that can come only from autonomous, unmediated
contact with it‖ (Hart, 1997, p.20). According to a study at the University of Durham, of
formative experiences that developed an attitude of personal concern for the environment,
―without a doubt the single most important category of response at all levels of data
analysis in the present project is experience outdoors, and particularly at a young age‖
(Palmer and Neal, 1994, p.3). Another study conducted by Wells and Leikes corroborated
that childhood experiences in the natural world are associated with adult
environmentalism (Wells and Leikes, 2006). Conversely a direct link has been
established between a lack of experience with the natural world and alienation, apathy,
and inaction towards it (Gruenewald and Smith, 2008).
American children‘s lack of contact with the natural world gained widespread
attention in 2005 with the publication of Richard Louv‘s book, Last Child in the Woods:
Saving our Children from Nature Deficit Disorder. Louv directed attention to the
correlation between less time spent in contact with the outdoors and the failure to develop
environmental literacy, amongst other problems. This association has also been tracked
by a number of other studies (Karsten and Vliet, 2006). According to the National
14
Environmental Education Training Foundation, ―The average 7 year old can name up to
200 corporate logos but cannot name the type of tree in front of his or her home‖ (Coyle,
2005, p.97).
While providing the opportunity for direct contact with nature has been
emphasized in recent years, most advocates of encouraging direct contact with the
environment do not support the elimination of classroom-based study. ―We cannot rely
entirely upon an EE that reduces the complexity of ecosystems in an analytic way and
presents itself in texts or films (or even single field trips), and then expect children
mentally to reconstruct this beautiful complexity. Neither can we rely entirely upon field
trips or environmental action projects to compensate totally for this lack of an experience
of place in childhood‖ (Hart 1997, p.19). Research indicates that while direct contact
with the outdoors can be valuable, one-time field trips or sporadic contact is not
necessarily beneficial. However, it has been established that sustained direct contact with
the outdoors is an important factor in building environmental literacy and concern for the
environment (Palmer and Neal, 1994; Karsten and Vliet, 2006; Wells and Leikes, 2006).
Having this contact in a frequently visited local community is regarded by many to be
particularly effective (Sobel, 2004; Gruenewald and Smith, 2008).
While localizing EE and providing opportunities for direct contact with the
outdoors have been widely accepted as developments in EE, the related strategy of
providing the opportunity to be directly involved in environmental problem-solving has
received less attention (Hart, 1997). The approach of involving citizen action projects
within environmental education has been particularly advocated for older children (Hart,
1997). Within the definitions and objectives of EE laid out in international documents,
there is language that describes the benefits of citizen involvement in environmental
issues as a way of achieving the goals of EE. However, political tension and the
traditional boundaries of how EE has been implemented in the United States have
prevented environmental problem investigation and citizen action from becoming a
central part of EE.
A third topic of recent interest in the development of EE in the United States is
how EE distinguishes itself from other educational strategies, and from movements such
as the environmental movement and the related environmental justice movement. While
many of these distinctions create tension in academic arenas, the tensions also play out in
practice. Some educational strategies that EE has had to distinguish itself from are
outdoor education, education for sustainable development, and nature study. While there
15
is overlap between EE and these approaches, they have some distinct objectives, which
can confuse the goals of some EE practitioners, if not properly understood. There has also
been some tension between EE and both the environmental movement and the
environmental justice movement. EE is not necessarily affiliated with either, but has in
many specific instances, clashed with or been subsumed into one or the other (RunningGrass and Agyeman, 2002).
A final concern that has been identified as standing in the way of EE‘s success in
reaching all Americans is the lack of access to programmatically effective EE
opportunities for diverse audiences. As increasing attention has been paid to diversity
within the general environmental movement, in parallel, attention has been increasingly
focused on how to make EE relevant to all communities. ―The environmental movement‖
that began at the end of the 1960s in North America and Europe remained for more than
25 years a largely middle-class movement of the industrialized countries. Finally, it is
maturing into a movement with central relevance to all communities, rich and poor, in
both hemispheres‖ (Hart 1997, p.3). While EE is likewise developing to include diverse
audiences, in practice little research has been conducted to determine what effective EE
looks like for these communities.
1.5 Environmental education for diverse audiences
A productive analysis of the state of diversity within EE requires, first,
establishing definitions for several terms that are central to this conversation but are
rarely explicitly defined. First, any conversation regarding diversity and EE demands a
working definition of diversity. Most references to diversity and EE amongst EE
practitioners imply racial diversity. ―For the most part, the code word diversity is simply
the safer substitute for the word race, although it also sometimes means class, gender or
sexual orientation‖ (Gruenewald and Smith 2008, p.139). Most literature on EE deals
almost exclusively with race and ethnicity. While the focus of attention to diversity may
be on race and ethnicity, I prefer a more deliberately inclusive definition, which includes
consciousness of class, gender, sexual orientation, a range of abilities and learning styles,
and the interaction of these categories.
As both race and ethnicity remain critical to conversations about diversity and
EE, it is important to understand the meaning and use of these terms. Both race and
ethnicity can be considered social constructs. Race is based on perceptions of physical
differences, such as skin color, whereas ethnicity is based on perception of cultural
16
differences. Cultural differences can include defining factors such as language, religion,
and family customs or traditions as well as political and economic differences (Chavez,
2000; Kato, 2004). One consequence of the social process of dividing groups of people
based on race and/or ethnicity is the implication that within each group, individual
members represent a homogenous group. This can lead to the perpetuation of harmful
stereotypes (Running-Grass, 2009). Although racial and ethnic divisions simplify
conversations regarding diversity, it is important not to form assumptions of homogeneity
within any of these groups.
Within the past decade researchers and EE professionals have recognized that
access to effective EE has been severely limited among non-Whites and people of lowincome. In addition, studies have shown that Latinos and African Americans are less
likely than Caucasians to use outdoor recreation areas, local parks and nature centers
(Hong, 2006; Chavez, 2000). Further, diverse populations also have demonstrably less
access to careers in environmental fields (Lewis and James, 1995).
Several myths have been perpetuated regarding this disparity of participation in
EE and environmental recreation. Seven major misconceptions standing in the way of
inclusiveness were identified in a study by Lewis and James (1995). They are:
1. People of color aren‘t interested in environmental issues.
2. Historically, people of color have not been involved in
environmental issues, resulting in a dearth of people of
color who can serve as role models in EE.
3. The issues receiving primary attention in the
environmental education curriculum have universal
appeal.
4. People of color aren‘t interested in environmental
education.
5. The needs of people of color are recognized and
addressed by those setting the environmental education
agenda.
6. Environmental education programs are presented in
ways that appeal to all audiences.
7. Environmental educators should initiate and facilitate a
discussion of the environmental education agenda by
people of color (Lewis and James, 1995).
Each of these misconceptions has been carefully deconstructed and none can be
validly associated with disparities in participation in EE (Lewis and James, 1995).
Beyond myths, several hypotheses have been put forward in attempts to explain the
disparity of involvement in environmentally related leisure activities among diverse
17
audiences. These hypotheses apply to participation in non-formal EE, such as voluntary
visits to nature centers. One hypothesis is the ―marginality hypothesis,‖ which states that
the under-participation of ethnic and racial groups is the result of the relatively limited
economic resources of these groups. Another hypothesis, the ―ethnicity hypothesis,‖
suggests that ethic and racial participation patterns result from culturally based
differences in value systems, norms, and leisure-socialization patterns. Other hypotheses
include selective acculturation, which refers to selective participation in activities outside
one‘s traditional culture, and perceived discrimination, which suggests that some people
might not participate in activities if they do not feel welcome. Research supports all of
these explanations to some degree, and all of them probably contribute to lack of
participation in some environmental programming (Chavez, 2000).
Underlying all of these hypotheses, but less referenced in academic literature and
conversations, is an explanation that points to institutionalized racism and stereotypes
(particularly as they are embedded in the mainstream environmental movement), as
contributors to the disparity of involvement in EE (Running-Grass, 2009). Several
authors have criticized conversations about race, ethnicity, gender, sexuality, and class in
general for failing to address the root causes of inequalities we see in society.
Instead of talking about diversity in race, class, gender
and sexual orientation, we should critique White
supremacy, economic inequality in capitalism,
patriarchy, and heterosexism. We should talk about
systems and structures of power, about ideologies of
domination and subordination – and about the injuries
done to those in subordinate groups, and the benefits and
privileges that accrue to those in dominant groups
(Jensen, 2005, p.78).
Within the past decade, increasing attention has been paid to the discrepancies in
effective participation of diverse audiences in EE. There are several explanations for this
increased attention. One prominent reason is census numbers. Another reason is that
members of diverse communities are demanding that this issue be addressed (RunningGrass, 2002; Running-Grass and Agyeman, 2002; Taylor, 1996). People of color are
disproportionally likely to be exposed to environmental hazards and many communities
are demanding inclusion in mainstream conversations regarding the environment. This
demand was propelled forward significantly after the First National People of Color
Environmental Leadership Summit drew global attention to the environmental justice
18
movement, and instigated a critique of EE (Lewis and James, 1995; Running-Grass and
Agyeman, 2002).
With recently growing recognition that there is a lack of available and effective
EE opportunities for diverse audiences in the United States, some attention has been paid
to developing programs specifically for these audiences. In fact, many EE programs
created specifically for low-income, urban audiences have achieved impressive results.
Addressing the issue of diversity in EE on a broad scale is not as simple as just creating
programs that these communities can have access to, however. If the goal of EE is indeed
to improve environmental literacy for all, then EE must critically examine how it
specifically addresses the needs of diverse communities (Gruenewald and Smith 2008;
Gigliotti, 1990; Lewis and James, 1995). Fortunately, in general, EE is in the process of
examining how it could develop to improve service to diverse communities. In practice,
however, few programs have carefully evaluated their relationships with diverse
audiences. Still, research has pointed to several developments of EE generally, and many
specific changes that programs could make, to improve their relationships with diverse
audiences (Agyeman, Newhall-Smith and Ringelheim, 2005).
1.6 Effective environmental education for diverse audiences
Several changes to overall established norms of EE have been identified as being
in need of reevaluation if EE is to be effective for diverse audiences. First, is a
reevaluation of the definition of ―environment,‖ to include material directly relevant to
diverse communities. Second, is a reevaluation of EE‘s relationship with the
environmental justice movement. Third, is purposeful analysis of and attention to
learning styles of the intended audiences. Fourth, is deliberate analysis of the inclusion of
role models from diverse communities in EE and the openness of the general
environmental field to employment of people from outside an affluent, White
background. Fifth, is the development of cultural competency for multicultural EE.
Finally, sixth, is the development of an effective means of evaluating the progress of EE
with regard to diversity.
Arguably the change most central to the efficacy of an EE program for a diverse
audience is the development of a curriculum that includes material directly relevant to
diverse audiences. Many authors recognize that, in order to be most effective, EE
curricula should focus on the issues directly affecting the intended audience (Lewis and
James, 1995). For the past 25 years, most EE has focused on nature-based education,
19
using the same definition of ―environment‖ that has been standard in the wider
environmental movement (Taylor, 1996, p.3; Hart, 1997). ―Environment and
environmentalism were defined as the antithesis to urban life, the answer, the antidote for
what was wrong with civilization, industrialization, urbanization, resource exploitation
and environmental degradation‖ (Taylor, 1996). This definition of environment excluded
topics of the urban environment relevant to many diverse audiences. ―Students of color or
poor students wanting to learn about the environment have had to divorce themselves
from their surroundings and familiar experiences to do so‖ (Taylor, 1996).
Broadening the definition of ―environment‖ in EE curricula allows audiences
previously excluded to have a place within EE. It does not imply removing nature
education from EE, but, rather, including social, political and economic elements
previously excluded from the understanding of the environment (Jacobson, Arana and
McDuff 1997). ―Students of all backgrounds can become interested in this field if they
are introduced to it in a way that is sensitive to the environments from which they come‖
(Taylor, 1996, p.5; Hart, 1997).
Further, developing contextual questions that help students relate topics typically
covered in EE programs to issues directly relevant to their lives can be useful (Clark,
1997). For example, students who might not engage with a curriculum about the habitat
of animals they have never seen, might be interested in considering questions such as
―How do animals adapt to an urban environment?‖ or, ―How does my habitat affect me?‖
(Clark, 1997).
A second related issue, which must be considered as EE strives to improve its
relationship with diverse audiences, is EE‘s relationship with the environmental justice
movement. Generally, there has been significant tension between EE and the
environmental justice movement. According to some in the environmental justice
movement, since its inception EE has excluded people of color and issues that concern
them. Many EE educators, however, have responded that topics related to environmental
justice are outside the scope of EE (Running-Grass and Agyman, 2002). EE and
environmental justice need not be seen as dichotomous, however (Lewis and James,
1995). While EE has failed to reach diverse audiences, programs associated with the
environmental justice movement have contributed to the development of environmental
literacy for many members of these communities. ―These programs taught in community
centers, homes, churches, union halls and the offices of environmental justice
organizations serve to educate environmental justice activists and others about
20
environmental issues, challenges and problems‖ (Taylor, 1996, p.5). The outreach efforts
of many EE programs to diverse communities could be facilitated by partnering with
established environmental justice programs in these communities.
A third way in which EE is challenged to stretch, in order to be more effective in
reaching a wider variety of audiences, is by paying attention to the variety of learning
styles prevalent amongst diverse audiences. Although, in the field of education in
general, attention to learning styles has been an important trend of interest, it has not had
as much attention within the field of EE. ―Appropriate content cannot be effective unless
it is presented in a manner that is compatible with the learning styles of the intended
audience. Although some EE literature addresses variations in learning styles relative to
seeing, hearing, and doing, discussions of variations in learning styles relative to racial
background have not been addressed in previous EE literature‖ (Lewis and James, 1995,
p.9).
Related to developing sensitivity to learning styles is developing sensitivity to
differences in culture. A fourth strategy suggested for adapting to better reach diverse
audiences is the development of cultural competency in programs and teachers. This
cultural competency is ―an ongoing process of developing awareness, behavior, structures
and practices that allow an organization program and its members to reach or engage
diverse groups and communities in relating to the natural and built environment and in
environmental stewardship (Barr, 2006, p.4). The importance of developing cultural
competence has been noted by many educators:
A key reason for attempting to train teachers for cultural
competence in the United States is that while the
teaching force remains overwhelmingly White, students
are increasingly diverse in terms of race, culture,
ethnicity nationality, and language. Without teachers
who are sensitive to and knowledgeable about
differences among individuals and groups, ―other
people‘s children‖ can be marginalized, neglected,
undervalued, poorly served, and even greatly damaged
by their experience of school. (Gruenewald and Smith,
2008, p.139)
It is important to emphasize that cultural competency does not refer only to
bringing content to diverse audiences, but rather developing a content that is ―conscious
of its own cultural perspectives and of the function that it has with the work and in the
lives of diverse students and communities‖ (Running-Grass, 1996, p.1; McIntosh, 1990).
The development of cultural competency must involve being prepared to continually
21
assess and adapt services. It is meant to be considered as an ongoing process as opposed
to an end goal (Olsen, Bhattacharya and Scharf, 2006).
A fifth issue identified as in need of consideration is the current lack of inclusion
of role models and teachers from diverse communities in the environmental field. Contact
with role models has been acknowledged as a significant factor leading to developing
interest in the environment and in choosing an environmental career. According the
National Environmental Education and Training Foundation, EE programs that provide
exposures to role models from diverse communities can become a significant doorway
for minorities to enter environment-based professions‖ (Coyle, 2005, p.82). Many of the
changes described above might need to become further grounded before a significant
influx of role models from diverse communities become prominent in EE. ―Until EE is
more visible within communities of color as a field that addresses issues pertinent to the
community, people of color interested in addressing ―environmental issues‖ may pursue
careers in fields such as public health or urban planning rather than EE per se‖ (Lewis
and James, 1995, p.5).
A sixth, and final, important factor in developing quality EE programs for diverse
audiences is the simultaneous development of reliable ways of analyzing effectiveness
and progress. Evaluation can ensure that including diversity in EE goes beyond tokenism
(Lewis and James, 1995) and is meeting the needs identified by the target audiences
themselves. A variety of assessment materials, including frameworks for evaluation and
suggestions of questions to reflect on are now available (Barr, 2006; Matusumoto, 2005;
Madges, 2004; Agyeman, Newhall-Smith and Ringelheim, 2005).
While the above overall changes to EE have gradually been working their way
into mainstream understanding of EE, putting these ideas into practice has been a slower
process. Still, some concrete methods of incorporating these ideas into EE have been
identified. These practical applications are in the slow process of integrating themselves
into public school curricula. As noted above, however, many public schools are limited in
their flexibility when it comes to implementing EE programs. Other venues for EE,
however, may be candidates for more rapid adaptation and can influence how EE is
delivered in public schools, since many of these programs partner with schools.
In fact, many non-school EE programs designed specifically for diverse
audiences have achieved impressive results in serving these audiences. For example, in
urban areas and regions with large populations of minorities, many EE organizations,
such as nature centers, zoos, and aquariums, have focused their efforts towards serving
22
diverse communities. One organization that has been lauded for its efforts in reaching
Latino communities is the organization Multicultural Education for Resource Issues
Threatening Oceans (MERITO) in Monterey, California. The organization specifically
strives to educate Latinos about the marine environment, although it plans to expand its
outreach to other communities as it gains resources.
Like other EE organizations who have achieved success in serving minority
populations, MERITO dedicated significant time and effort to researching the needs and
interests of the Latino community in the region before designing and implementing its
programs.
Development of the MERITO Plan took place from
October 2000 to March 2001. Sanctuary staff collected
need assessment information during thirty individual
meetings with community leaders representing local
community groups, school districts, universities, nonprofit organizations, city, state and federal agencies, and
the farm industry. The personal interviews resulted in a
list of critical needs that needed to be addressed in order
for the MERITO Plan to provide effective multicultural
education. (MERITO, 2009)
The majority of programs not designed specifically for diverse audiences,
however, have not considered the specific needs and interests of diverse communities. As
a result, the majority of EE organizations that do not cater explicitly to diverse audiences
have served them poorly. Still, EE organizations, such as nature centers, play an essential
role in providing EE education, and an increasing number have expressed interest in
improving their service to diverse audiences.
1.7 The role of nature centers in providing environmental education to
diverse audiences
The conversation regarding EE and diversity has been particularly focused on EE
within the context of the public school system, which is in the process of generally
reevaluating how to reach diverse audiences of children. Significant attention has also
been paid to diversity and organizations that offer EE locally, as the importance of
connecting EE to the local community has been increasingly recognized. ―For
environmental education to be successful in reaching a wider variety of people (in terms
of gender, race, and social class), it must be extended beyond the formal institutionalized
23
settings that characterize the venues for most of these programs. That is, the content of
the message and the location of the message has to be expanded to meet the needs of
people‖ (Taylor, 1996, p.5).
Nature centers, including zoos and parks, offer important opportunities for EE,
particularly for urban and diverse youth (Palmer and Neal, 1994). ―Nature centers can
develop action-oriented environmental programs relevant to minorities and other groups
that may not have had long-term interaction with natural areas, early childhood
experiences in nature, or the indulgence of adult role models involved in environmental
activities − all factors that traditionally play a major role in developing an interest in
environmental issues‖ (Jacobson, Arana and McDuff, 1997, p.28).
Based on samples of data from several states, there are at least 3000 established
public and private nature centers in the US (Coyle, 2005). These centers have the
potential to provide effective education by connecting youth to direct experience in the
outdoors, and by providing an opportunity to learn about and become involved in the
community. Unfortunately, most nature centers have not considered what audiences they
are reaching effectively with their programs, with the consequence that diverse audiences
fail to be served by most nature centers (Jacobson, Arana and McDuff, 1997). Further, in
most communities, there has been little coordination between schools and nature centers
to consider how EE is being provided to audiences on regional scales.
Still, some nature centers have attempted to address issues of diversity within
their organizations, and, in pioneering this territory, have highlighted a few notable
struggles. One struggle, paralleling that encountered by many public schools, is a
resistance to adjusting the curriculum to include locally relevant issues that may be
politically charged. A survey of 1225 nature centers in the United States revealed that
less than 15% of nature centers considered providing information about local
environmental issues a major goal (Jacobson, Arana and McDuff, 1997; Gruenewald and
Smith, 2008). While it has been demonstrated that engaging communities with
environmental topics to which they can relate locally is critical to the development of
environmental literacy, many nature centers resist introducing this type of curriculum,
often with the defense that it would create conflicts of interest with their funding sources.
However, deliberate restructuring of curriculum that includes reaching out to diverse
audiences may actually open opportunities for funding sources (Jacobson, Arana and
McDuff, 1997).
24
Another challenge for nature centers striving to reach diverse audiences is to
involve teachers and role models from diverse audiences. Solutions include training
teachers in cultural competency and integrating members from diverse audiences into the
staff. Multiple ways have been suggested to recruit staff and volunteers from diverse
communities. Strategies include developing long term partnerships with diverse
organizations, creating opportunities for paid internships (particularly important for high
school and college students), reevaluating what qualifies someone for a job, broadening
job recruitment strategies, and generally increasing outreach into diverse communities
(Barr, 2006).
Another common problem for nature centers attempting to address issues of
diversity is that their efforts fail to address issues of diversity on a deep level. Diversity
is often addressed superficially, with token or short-term involvement of diverse
audiences, instead of the development of sustained relationships with these audiences.
This can be the result of not having enough staff time or resources dedicated to
addressing diversity. Several frameworks and lists of questions have been developed for
organizations to use if they are serious about addressing issues of diversity within their
organizations and would like to avoid these pitfalls (Barr, 2006; Matsumoto, 2005).
Finally, an important consideration for nature centers is evaluating how the
services they provide fit into the bigger picture of EE opportunities in the broader
community. While a nature center might attempt to improve its service to diverse
communities in isolation, it is important to consider how the experiences it provides fit
into EE on an expanded scale. Research shows that one-time experiences at nature
centers may be exciting for children, but do not contribute to the development of
environmental literacy. This applies especially to many urban children, who have little
direct experience with the outdoors outside of fieldtrip opportunities. Linking experiences
provided at a nature center to other learning and experiences is therefore essential.
Further, parental reinforcement of messages can be an important component of building
environmental literacy. If parents are not connected to messages being learned by
students at field sites, they may not be able to relate to or reinforce messages students
bring home. Finally, an individual nature center can most efficiently allocate its resources
to underserved audiences if it is aware of how these audiences are served by other EE
programs on a regional scale.
Nature centers have the potential to be an important resource for providing
quality EE to diverse audiences. In order to create effective programming, however, it is
25
not enough just to provide access. Nature centers must provide a relevant curriculum,
deliver it appropriately, and consider how the education provided fits into wider
environmental education opportunities provided to the audience. Unfortunately, although
many nature centers are interested in better serving diverse communities, few programs
that do not focus on serving diverse populations have achieved impressive results. One
reason is that few organizations have the resources to conduct research into how to best
serve these communities, to conduct outreach, or to increase volunteer and staff
recruitment and training (such as MERITO was able to do in Monterey). Unfortunately,
while there are isolated examples of successes, the majority of EE programs have fallen
short of meeting the needs of diverse audiences. As a result, these audiences fail to have
access to effective EE.
1.8 Latino communities and environmental education
As the field of environmental education evaluates how it can better serve the
needs of diverse audiences, the conversation rarely ventures to consider what specific
considerations might be necessary depending on the particular target audience. Some
research has been done on urban populations and on African American populations
(Kahn, Peter and Friedman, 1998). Little research, however, has been conducted on the
needs and relevant access points for providing effective EE to Latino communities.
Considering that Latinos represent the fastest growing ethnic group in the United States,
it is of particularly timely importance to consider this population.
To begin to look at the relationship of Latino communities with EE, it is first
important to define this community. While there has been significant debate regarding the
meaning and use of the term ―Latino,‖ colloquially it is a term that refers to any person of
Hispanic origin, regardless of race. The term ―Latino‖ and ―Hispanic‖ are often used
interchangeably; although the ―Latino‖ is more commonly used in the western United
States, and ―Hispanic‖ is more common in the East (Office of Management and Budget,
1997). In the United States, the Latino population has steadily increased since World
War II, as immigrants from Mexico, the Caribbean, and Central and South America have
entered the country (Gonzalez, 2001). According to the 2000 United States Census, the
Latino population in the United States includes 35.3 million people, or 12.5% of the total
population (US Census Bureau, 2000). This population is not evenly dispersed
throughout the country. Rather, 60% of the nation‘s Latinos live in California, New York,
Texas, and Florida, concentrated in urban areas. This population is also younger and
26
reproducing more quickly than either Black or White populations in the United States,
and is predicted to become the largest minority group in the United States (Gonzales,
2001).
As the demographic shift has become more apparent within the past decade,
tensions have arisen surrounding this transformation of ethnic composition, as accepted
aspects of the country‘s ―national identity, language, culture and official history have
been challenged‖ (Gonzales, 2001, p. xii). This cultural shift is more complicated than
the addition of a large homogenous group, however. Latino communities include people
from a variety of nationalities and cultures, races, and classes. Further, this group
includes individuals who have spent different amounts of time in the United States. Some
research indicates that amount of time in the US could be of greater influence on
environmental attitudes than race or ethnicity (Caro and Ewert, 1995). This study
suggests that it is important to at least acknowledge the multiplicity of communities
within the Latino population, including groups with different levels of acculturation,
when attempting to consider the Latino population as a whole.
Research on EE and Latino communities as a whole indicates some participation
patterns and recreational preferences for this group. One study examined barriers to
participation of Latino communities to nature centers in Florida. Lack of familiarity with
the programs, general atmosphere, language, and cost of programs were identified as
barriers to participation (Hong, 2006). To address these concerns, the study
recommended improving outreach by exploring alternative methods of advertisement,
such as connecting with mothers and grandmothers (because they are usually the ones
most active in their children‘s lives), offering programs and materials in Spanish, and
providing financial assistance for low income families (Hong, 2006). Further research
has explored outreach methods that work well for Latino communities. ―Agencies
typically use persuasion and mass media to communicate. Both of these represent
communication to, not with, the public ethnic groups … Hispanics have other preferred
methods of communication such as primarily interpersonal channels − family and
friends‖ (Chavez, 2000, p.188).
I did not encounter any studies that focused on activities or subjects Latino
communities might be particularly interested in, with direct regards to EE. However, I did
find several references to environmental leisure use patterns of Latino communities. For
the most part these references support commonly held stereotypes about these
communities. One trend commonly referred to in literature is that Latinos tend to
27
participate in outdoor recreation activities in large groups (see references in Chavez,
2000). This pattern was identified as rooted in cultural beliefs about the importance of
extended family. Another recreational activity commonly associated with Latino
communities is barbequing, or sharing food in general (Chavez, 2000).
While little literature is available with regards to the Latino population and EE
nationally, even less research has been conducted at the local level. In Monterey,
California, MERITO conducted a local study to determine the current needs and interests
of Latino communities with regards to EE, focused on marine issues. This type of inquiry
is rare, however. In Portland, Oregon, although many programs are interested in serving
diverse audiences, few programs have deeply analyzed their current service to specific
audiences or developed plans for improved service.
The Friends of Tryon Creek State Park (FTC) is a non-profit organization that
conducts EE programs in Tryon Creek State Park. The organization expressed interest in
analyzing its current service to Latino populations and developing a plan for improving
service to this community. Before introducing the case study of this organization,
however, it is imperative to place the organization within the wider regional context of
EE programs in the Portland Metropolitan region. Ultimately, to make recommendations
to FTC regarding its service to Latino communities, it is essential to consider the role that
FTC plays in providing EE to the region.
28
Chapter 2: Environmental education for all in Portland, Oregon: A
background to the case study of The Friends of Tryon Creek
Portland, Oregon has been nationally recognized for its emphasis on issues of
sustainability and the environment. In 2008 it was rated the nation‘s greenest city by
Popular Science magazine, because, ―America‘s top green city has it all: Half its power
comes from renewable sources, a quarter of the workforce commutes by bike, carpool or
public transportation, and it has 35 buildings certified by the U.S. Green Building
Council‖ (Popular Science, 2009, p. x). Complementing the city‘s focus on
environmental issues, Portland hosts a large number of EE programs, ranging from small
after-school programs, conducted at single schools, to programs such as Outdoor School,
a week-long curriculum taught at facilities in a nearby forest, attended by most of the
metro area‘s 6th grade students. However, little research has been conducted into how the
region as a whole is served by this variety of programs. Although the overall function of
the regions‘ EE programs has been poorly studied, available information regarding the
region‘s demographics and current EE programs still provides valuable background
information to understand the role of a single EE organization, FTC, within this network.
2.1 Demographics of Portland
Portland is the largest city in Oregon, with 540,000 people (US Bureau of the
Census, 2000a). While most cities in the United States concentrate minority populations
in urban areas, in Portland, the central areas of the city are overwhelmingly White, while
outlying areas include more minority populations (see Fig. 3-5). Around Portland, areas
in the north and east, including neighboring cities of Gresham, Beaverton, and Hillsboro,
have much higher populations of racial and ethnic minorities than the city‘s central area.
For example, while the Latino population of Portland is 6.8%, the Latino population in
Hillsboro is 18.9% and growing. (The Latino population in Hillsboro grew at a rate of
450% between 1990 and 2005). (US Bureau of the Census, 2000b; Hillsboro Community
Profile, 2007). The overall Whiteness and segregation of Portland has been examined in
a series of popular media articles. According to a recent article in The Oregonian,
―Among the nation's 40 largest metro areas, only four − none of them in the West − are
Whiter than Portland‖ (The city is 77.6% White.) (Hammond, 2009).
29
Fig. 3. Percentage of population that is White by 2000 census
Approximate location of Tryon Creek State Park
Data source: US Bureau of the Census, 2000c
Fig. 4. Percentage of population that is Hispanic by 2000 census
Approximate location of Tryon Creek State Park
Data source: US Bureau of the Census, 2000c
30
Fig.5. Average income by 2000 census
Approximate location of Tryon Creek State Park
Data source: US Bureau of the Census, 2000c
The segregation of Portland is also evident in an examination of public school
demographics. For example, in Oregon overall, one in five students is Latino (Hammond,
2009). In the Portland public school district, however, Latino students are not uniformly
spread throughout schools. According to data from the Portland Public School District,
Latinos are concentrated in relatively few schools. While Latinos make up 13.7% of
enrollment overall, 56% of schools have less than 10% Latino enrollment, while 10% of
schools have Latino enrollment of over 30%, including 52% at the Clarendon-Portsmouth
school in North Portland (Portland Public School, 2009). In neighboring cities, minority
populations make up a larger percentage of students overall. For example, in Beaverton,
44% of elementary students are Latino (Washington County Commission on Children
and Families, 2007). It is important to note that these racial and ethnic disparities between
schools are closely tied to economic separations between neighborhoods (Portland Public
Schools, 2009).
2.2 Environmental education in Portland
Portland has been associated with the forefront of the environmental movement
and, in parallel, has demonstrated a commitment to the development of EE programming.
31
Portland public schools have demonstrated a dedication to providing EE through the
implementation of many programs. There are several environmental charter schools in
the Portland area, including Sunnyside Environmental School and the Rachel Carson
Middle School. Portland also offers an Outdoor School experience to all 6th grade
students, which includes a several-night stay at a research facility. Further, many
individual teachers have been nationally recognized for achievements in incorporating EE
into their curricula.
Outside-of-classroom EE in Portland includes multiple types of programming.
Some programming is provided by the city, through the Parks and Recreation
Department. Other programming is offered at nature centers and state parks. Further,
there are many small informal programs, often offered as after-school programs in
conjunction with specific schools. There is no available analysis of which programs are
being offered and utilized by schools on a citywide scale, or of the efficacy of
programming provided. Consequently, there has been no analysis of how well diverse
audiences are being served by EE programs. (For in-school programs there is legislation
requiring that children of migrant families have access to the same programs as
traditional students, meaning that there is some official monitoring of their access to EE
programs, such as Outdoor School). The Environmental Education Association of Oregon
(EEAO) does plan to make available a comprehensive list of programs; however, this was
not posted as of May, 2009. The most recent attempt to compile information of available
EE programs is the 2005 Portland Metropolitan Area Natural Resource Education
Directory (Zenn, 2005).
Likewise, few EE programs in the Portland area have examined how they serve
diverse communities or Latino communities in particular. One program that is interested
in addressing its service to diverse communities, and specifically Latino communities, is
The Friends of Tryon Creek State Park.
2.3 An Introduction to Tryon Creek State Natural Area and The Friends of
Tryon Creek
Tryon Creek State Natural Area is a state park owned by the State of Oregon and
managed by the Parks and Recreation Department. It is located in the hills of southwest
Portland, Oregon, placing it within 10 miles of almost one-fifth of the population of
Oregon (Friends of Tryon Creek State Park, 1994). Although the demographics of the
immediate neighborhood are overwhelmingly upper-middle class and White, the
32
populations of neighboring Beaverton and Hillsboro have some of the fastest growing
minority populations in the state. Conversely, the community of Lake Oswego, in the
immediate vicinity, has one of the most homogenously White and affluent populations in
the region (91.1% White) (Bureau of the Census, 1997).
Unlike other Oregon State Parks, whose main objective is recreation, the mission
of Tryon Creek State Natural Area is to preserve Tryon Creek as a natural area. The
management of the park reflects this mission: ―Only those recreational uses compatible
with this natural area, such as hiking, running, horseback and bicycle riding, and nature
study are permitted. Development in the park is limited to a 14-mile trail system, nature
center, covered shelter, parking areas and maintenance facilities. Unlike other state parks
there are no campgrounds, picnic areas, or playgrounds‖ (Friends of Tryon Creek State
Park, 1994, p.1−2).
2.3.1 Natural History of Tryon Creek State Park
Today the 635-acre natural area of Tryon Creek State Park includes a dense
second-growth forest dominated by Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), western red
cedar (Thuja plicata), big leaf maple (Acer macrophyllum), and red alder (Alnus rubra)
trees with a perennial stream, Tryon Creek, flowing through it. What visitors see today,
as they walk the trails of the park, is the result of millions of years of geological,
biological, climatic and human history. The geological history of the park can be seen
contemporarily by careful examination of the land and soil formations in and around the
park. An astute observer can decipher evidence of the dynamic volcanic, tectonic, glacial,
and hydrological history of the area.
The park encompasses a unique geological area, including an exposed formation
of the Waverly Heights, a small island of basalt jutting out from surrounding flows of
Columbia River basalts that did not flow over the park and surrounding area. The
geological history of the area has also left other traces in the park, such as evidence of
lava flows from the eruption of nearby volcanoes, including Mount Sylvania. Further
examination of the rocks and soils of the park suggests the dynamic glacial and
hydrological history of the area. Glaciers expanded and retreated across the area from 3
million years ago until about 10,000 years ago, depositing sediments and eroding the
region (Friends of Tryon Creek State Park, 1994).
This geological history continues to influence the biology of the park in many
ways. For example, Tryon Creek State Park is underlain by a layer of hard clay, about 23
33
inches under the surface. The layer, called fragipan, prevents even thick tree roots from
penetrating, causing the ground to be wet and unstable, particularly during winter storms.
A strong wind or severe storm season usually causes the fall of a number of trees in the
park (Friends of Tryon Creek State Park, 1994).
More recent hydrological and climatic conditions further affect what visitors
experience in the park today. Tryon Creek, for instance, is a perennially flowing stream
beginning in a series of seeps and springs near the park. Just before entering the park,
Tryon Creek is joined by Arnold Creek, flows through the park and continues on to
empty into the Willamette River. Although the 10-mile stream is perennial, its water level
fluctuates severely throughout the seasons (70% of the park‘s precipitation falls
November−March, while only 5% falls June−August). This fluctuation of water level
affects the surrounding habitat of the park. For example, high water levels during winter
storms deposit silt and large debris across the flood plain and along stream banks. Every
year the stream demonstrates its active influence on the Tryon Creek ecosystem (Friends
of Tryon Creek State Park, 1994).
The climate of Tryon Creek State Park also continually influences the conditions
in the park. Although the park‘s overall climate is generally the same as the surrounding
urban area, the forest canopy and the water sources create a microclimate of slightly
different conditions in the park. For example, visitors note the cooler temperatures in the
summer (Friends of Tryon Creek State Park, 1994).
2.3.2 Social history of Tryon Creek State Park
Just as geological, hydrological, biological and climatic conditions have
influenced the park, so has the history of humans in the area. It is critical to understand
the history of Tryon Creek State Park in order to comprehend the distinctive character of
the park today. The park land was used by Native Americans as hunting and gathering
grounds for centuries, before its resources were capitalized on by a series of White
settlers. In 1849, pioneer Socrates Hotchkiss Tryon came to Oregon with his wife and
children and built a small farm, sawmill and, in 1855, a house on the property. In 1874,
the Oregon Iron Company bought the land from the Tryon family and logged it for cedar
and fir through the 1890s. The timber was used to make charcoal to fire the pig iron
foundry in Lake Oswego. During this period the huge and ancient Douglas-fir and
western red cedar forest that the pioneers first encountered in the area was transformed
into open fields. As different areas of what is now the park cycled in and out of active
34
logging, continual successional stages progressed throughout the park. The evidence and
progression of this patchy succession is still evident in the park today (Friends of Tryon
Creek State Park, 1994).
According to historians, a formal suggestion to form a park in the Tryon Creek
area appeared on planning maps as far back as the 1920s but the idea was not seriously
considered, and the land was continually logged until the early 20th century (Friends of
Tryon Creek State Park, 1994). By the late 1950s, as residential development in the
surrounding areas was increasing, there began to be community interest in the creation of
a park.
As people increasingly settled near the area, local government met to discuss the
park‘s formation. However, financial and legal constraints prevented any plan from
moving forward. In 1960, the City of Portland built a major trunk sewer alongside Tryon
Creek down to Lake Oswego, which alerted community members that timely action was
necessary to create a park before the area was developed. In 1969, Multnomah County
jumpstarted what became a grassroots community campaign to form the park, through the
purchase of 45 acres of land in the area. From an original public meeting of 40
supporters came a steering committee directed at developing a non-profit organization to
promote the park and help coordinate efforts between the local governments to stave off
development (Friends of Tryon Creek State Park, 1994).
The organization Friends of Tryon Creek State Park (hereafter FTC), was
incorporated in December 1969 to shape the effort to create a park in the area, and
immediately became engaged in confronting developers and in motivating the community
to action. In 1970, the hope of securing a park was threatened by a Seattle-based
developer who optioned 200 acres around the creek and planned to acquire and develop
the entire area. FTC directed a campaign of volunteers to fundraise to purchase lands, in
order to prevent this development. The campaigns were able to raise $27,000 and a tide
of community interest in the creation of a park (Friends of Tryon Creek State Park,
1994).
Although the community was able to raise considerable funds and enthusiasm,
significantly more financial help was needed within a short time frame, if the land was to
be secured from development. FTC turned to Glen Jackson for help; Jackson was in
charge of the Oregon State Park budget. Under the influence of FTC, Jackson made an
exceptional decision to create an urban state park from the area. His decision was based
on the facts that, ―The canyon was a large area still intact, it was where people live,
35
and… the project had enormous community support‖ (Friends of Tryon Creek State Park,
1994, p.9). In 1971−2 the State of Oregon purchased the remaining available properties
in the area bringing the total size of the park to 620 acres (Friends of Tryon Creek State
Park, 1994).
As soon as the park land was secured, the state created a master plan for the park.
Central to the master plan was a nature center, to serve as a focal point for educational
programs at the park. FTC planned and built the center as a gift to the park from the
community. The partnership in the creation of the nature center began the unique
relationship between FTC and the state in managing the park. ―Though it was a new
experience for the state to work with a citizen group, the value of such a partnership was
recognized and set the stage for similar arrangements to be developed in other state
parks‖ (Friends of Tryon Creek State Park, 1994, p. 9). Tryon Creek State Natural Area
was officially dedicated in 1975, with both FTC and State Park officials maintaining an
important presence (Friends of Tryon Creek State Park, 1994).
Currently, the state owns, manages, and maintains the park and facilities.
Although FTC was largely responsible for construction of buildings, it does not retain
ownership. The state provides a park manager and support personnel including a
naturalist, who works closely with FTC to plan activities. FTC is responsible for many of
the park‘s educational activities, classes and camps (Friends of Tryon Creek State Park,
1994).
2.4 Programs Offered by Friends of Tryon Creek
FTC‘s mission is, ―to conserve and enhance the natural resources, and promote
the educational, interpretive and recreational programs of Tryon Creek State Park.‖ FTC
has gradually built an array of programs that support this mission and take advantage of
the distinctive natural and social history of the area. For example, programs integrate a
variety of themes related to the social history of the area, including elements of
ethnobotany, succession due to human (and natural) disturbance, watershed and riparian
health, and invasive species.
Further, FTC‘s programs take advantage of the opportunity to expose urban
visitors to a variety of plant and animal species that are native to the region, but which
have been pushed out of the urban environment. Visitors can encounter trilliums
(Trillium ovatum) in the spring, smell lantern-like skunk cabbage (Lysichitum
americanum), hear the tapping sound of Pileated Woodpeckers (Dryocopus pileatus), and
36
taste delicate thimbleberries (Rubus parviflorus). The park also provides an opportunity
for visitors to observe plants and animals they are familiar with in a non-urban
environment, including Douglas squirrels (Tamiasciurus douglasi), raccoons (Procyon
lotor) and familiar flowers, such as wood violets (Viola glabella).
Visitors can also learn to recognize many familiar species as invasive to the park.
As neighborhoods have encroached on the area, they brought with them a variety of nonnative plants, which continue to proliferate in the park today. English ivy (Hedera helix),
garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata), daffodils (Narcissus pseudonarcissus) and apple trees
(Malus domestica) are now established in the area, despite eradication efforts.
Programs are designed and implemented by the Executive Director, Education
Director, Nature Day Camp Director, plus other FTC and state park employees,
volunteers, and interns. FTC also has an active board that has ongoing input into projects
and events. FTC‘s financial-support comes from private donations, fundraising events,
the Oregon Lottery, corporate donors, and program revenue.
Programs offered by FTC are designed for many audiences including children,
adults, students, families and teachers. These programs include overnight, full-day and
half-day camps in the summer and during winter and spring breaks; weekly, guided
nature hikes and adult- family- and child-oriented hikes and workshops; and an ongoing
Junior Ranger program. FTC also has a variety of programs designed for schools,
including a travelling curriculum that it brings to classrooms, field trip programs, and
teacher training sessions. In addition, FTC hosts other events, including a weekly summer
music series, an outdoor art gallery, seasonal celebrations and fundraisers, special events
with partner organizations such as ivy-pulls, and ―Let‘s Go Camping,‖ an assisted
camping program for families who have not previously had camping experience. In
addition, FTC runs a nature center at the park, complete with a library and educational
displays. FTC also coordinates volunteer and internship opportunities for both youth and
adults. In 2008, hundreds of volunteers contributed a total of 12,032 hours of service to
FTC.
FTC is currently in the process of reevaluating all of its educational
programming, to determine whether it is consistent with the organization‘s mission
statement. Originally FTC had funding to conduct a survey of its programming over one
year. However, funding has been cut so that it currently has 6 months to conduct a review
of programs. So far the review has suggested that FTC should focus its future efforts on
37
innovative programs that are uncommon to the region, such as service learning
opportunities and school programs for pre-school children.
While individual staff and administrators at FTC have been concerned about the
organization‘s relationship with diverse audiences for many years, FTC has dedicated
little time to formally assessing its service to diverse communities. For example, as a
part of the review of its current programs, FTC is informally interested in evaluating its
service to diverse audiences, but this is not an explicit goal of the review, and therefore
might not be a priority, as time and funding for the review are at risk. Similarly, when
casually asked about FTC‘s service to diverse audiences, several staff members were
quick to propose translating materials into Spanish, but mentioned that this was not a
current project.
FTC does reach out to low-income audiences through a variety of scholarship
and partnership programs (see page 52 for information on current service to diverse
audiences), however the organization has not evaluated the success of these individual
programs in serving diverse audiences, nor has it formally reflected on the organization‘s
overall service to these groups. The intention of my research has been to help FTC
evaluate its current service to Latinos, and to provide the organization guidance for future
improvements. The following section explains the methods I employed throughout this
process.
38
Chapter 3: Methods
I became interested in questions related to service to diverse communities in EE
programming after working for several years as an EE educator in a variety of settings
throughout the Pacific Northwest. I noticed that, in all my positions, little training was
provided regarding adapting curriculum for different audiences, and, frankly, that the
audiences I encountered represented little racial, ethnic, economic or other diversity.
In the summer of 2008, I was employed as an instructor for summer EE
programming at The Friends of Tryon Creek State Park‘s Nature Day Camp. While I
was aware that FTC had a scholarship program, I particularly noted that there seemed to
be little diversity among the staff or students at the park, and wondered whether this had
to do with the location of the park (limiting access), or whether there were other factors
contributing to the relative lack of diversity. Through casual conversations with
coworkers I learned that there was interest within the administration to address the
service of FTC programs to diverse communities. FTC‘s interest in evaluating its service
to diverse communities made it an ideal candidate for a case study to identify barriers to
reaching diverse audiences, and to develop a series of recommendations for improving
service to diverse audiences that would be applicable to other programs as well.
FTC has much in common with a number of other EE organizations that are
interested in serving more diverse audiences, but which have, so far, not met their goals.
One important factor that FTC has in common with many of these organizations is that it
is not located in a community convenient for many diverse communities, but is, in fact,
located in one of the most White and affluent sections of the city. Still, FTC and many
similar EE organizations have a number of unique resources to potentially provide
effective EE education to many communities. For example, FTC presents one of the
closest opportunities for urban residents to explore a forest through high quality
interpretive programs.
I approached the executive director of FTC and proposed doing a project to come
up with a series of recommendations for improving FTC service to diverse communities,
with the idea that many of these recommendations would be applicable to many other EE
organizations, as well. After we agreed to go forward with the project, it quickly
developed and grew more focused. In the design of my methods, I drew on several
established qualitative research designs appropriate for educational research. First, I used
39
a case study framework. Second, I used a utilization-focused evaluation model. Third, I
used a research design of illuminative evaluation.
Qualitative research in education is a well established research standard, which
holds several advantages over purely quantitative studies in some situations. While
quantitative analysis can be useful to decision making, qualitative data allow for
examining and evaluating aspects of educational programs that elude quantitative
techniques (Mrazek, 1993). For example, although a demographic survey of the users of
Tryon Creek State Natural Area would provide useful information, such quantitative data
would not necessarily reveal information that the survey did not anticipate the importance
of measuring. In-depth interviews, however, can uncover these themes.
Another advantage of qualitative research methods for some projects is that they
allow for an open- ended research question. In qualitative research, ―Research questions
are not framed by operationalzing variables; rather they are formulated to investigate
topics in all their complexity, in context‖ (Biklen, Knopp and Bogdan 1992, p.2). This is
opposed to quantitative research, which generally requires testing a specific hypothesis.
Qualitative researchers do not necessarily ―search out data or evidence to prove or
disprove hypotheses they hold before entering the study,‖ but, rather, can be free to
develop hypotheses as they gather information (Biklen, Knopp and Bogdan, 1992, p.31).
Further, I used a phenomenological approach, which allowed me to design a
study that would not test the veracity of a single hypothesis, but rather attempt to discern
a variety of perspectives from those involved. ―Phenomenologists believe that multiple
ways of interpreting experiences are available to each of us through interacting with
others, and that it is the meaning of our experiences that constitutes reality‖ (Biklen,
Knopp and Bogdan, 1992, p.23). This is not to say that phenomenological research denies
a reality that ―stands over and against human beings‖ (Biklen, Knopp and Bogdan, 1992,
p.23). Rather, phenomenologists believe that ―reality comes to be understood to human
beings only in the form in which it is perceived,‖ so it is the multiple perceptions of all
people involved in a common situation that are of interest, more than a single concrete
reality (Biklen, Knopp and Bogdan, 1992, p.24).
In my study I am concerned with understanding the variety of perspectives held
by multiple parties regarding access and effectiveness of EE for Latinos at Tryon Creek.
Both quantitative and qualitative methods could have contributed relevant information to
this study. Because I was concerned with exploring the complex interplay of multiple
parties, however, I chose to focus on a qualitative, phenomenological approach which
40
would allow me to uncover a variety of perspectives and issues that I could not predict.
Some quantitative methods were also appropriate for my research, such as analyzing the
demographic records of FTC. Although it might have been valuable for me to include
additional quantitative methods in my research, such as surveys that could be statistically
analyzed, a predominantly qualitative study was appropriate for the scope and research
goals of this project. I drew from several specific qualitative methodologies in my
research design.
3.1 Case Study
First, I approached this project as a case study. ―Case study is the study of the
particularity and complexity of a single case, coming to understand its activity within
important circumstances‖ (Stake, 1995, p. xi). Case study research is appropriate when
there is a need for a general understanding but insight into the question can be arrived at
by studying a particular case (Stake, 1995). A case might be chosen either for its
commonality with other cases, or for its uniqueness. However,
The real business of case study is particularization, not
generalization. We take a particular case and come to
know it well, not primarily as to how it is different from
others but what it is, what it does. There is emphasis on
uniqueness, and that implies knowledge of others that
the case is different from, but the first emphasis is on
understanding the case itself. (Stake, 1995, p. 4)
When conducting a case study, a researcher must first decide on a case (a
program, or an individual, for example) to focus on. As mentioned above, the researcher
might chose a case based on its commonality with other cases, or based on its uniqueness,
but the researcher usually attempts to pick a case that will lead to generalizable findings.
Once the researcher has chosen a case, the first step is often to identify issues and issue
questions. ―Issues‖ and ―issue questions‖ can be understood similarly to hypotheses and
goal statements. However, the terms suggest more of a focus on ―complexity and
contextuality‖ as well as on ―problems and concerns‖ (Stake, 1995, p.18). During the
course of research these questions are allowed to continually ―emerge, grow, and die,
however identifying them early helps to organize the case study‖ (Stake, 1995, p.21).
A case study researcher can gather data through a variety of means including
interviews, observation, and surveys. As key themes emerge from research, issues are
continually redefined, and additional data are gathered to replicate or triangulate key
41
observations. Data are analyzed by searching for patterns and linkages within the data,
and conclusions are organized according to themes. Finally, the researcher must
communicate her findings, which includes helping ―the reader discern the typicality and
relevance of a situation as a base for generalization‖ (Stake, 1995, p.53).
I chose to use a case study design because I felt that understanding the
complexities of a particular case, in depth, would help identify useful generalizations,
applicable to general research regarding diversity in environmental education. While, as
with any case, there are factors unique to FTC, I chose FTC as a case because of its
commonality with many other EE programs. For example, like other EE providers, FTC
offers programs that are not specifically designed to serve underserved populations, even
though it would like to improve its service to those populations. As I became familiar
with FTC, I was able to determine which of my conclusions might have external
relevance and which might be specific to FTC.
3.2 Utilization-focused evaluation
Another methodology I used in my research was utilization-focused evaluation.
This methodology is similar to participatory action research, or action research
(Schwandt, 1997; Freire, 1970). Action research seeks to shape solutions to social
injustices and issues through research that involves the input of people involved,
particularly those people who have been traditionally marginalized or oppressed
(Schwandt, 1997).
Like action research, utilization-focused evaluation sets out to produce a result
that can be applied by an identified user. As opposed to research that aims to produce
―knowledge and truth,‖ utilization-focused research ―supports action.‖ ―Utilizationfocused evaluation is highly personal and situational. The evaluation facilitator
[researcher] develops a working relationship with intended users to help them determine
what kind of evaluation they need‖ (Patton, 1997, p.37). While utilization-focused
evaluation does not ―advocate any particular evaluation content, model, method, theory
or even use,‖ it does suggest that decisions about these processes should be made in
collaboration with the intended user group. It is critical for the intended user to be
involved in the research from the beginning of the process so that results are produced
that the user is invested in using (Patton, 2002, p.37).
Practically, a researcher conducting utilization-focused evaluation must first
identify an appropriate organization and ―relevant decision makers and information
42
users‖ (Patton, 2002, p.284). It is important for the researcher to work with an
organization that can use the information generated, is interested in this information, and
that can share the responsibility for the evaluation and its utilization. Once the
organization is identified, the researcher ideally works with the organization to develop
evaluation questions, a plan for gathering data, and ultimately a projection of how
findings emerging from the study will be analyzed, interpreted and used (Patton, 2002,
p.289).
I chose to use a utilization-focused methodology for my study, as it was
important to me that my research would lead to relevant and useful results for an
organization interested in making improvements in EE for underserved populations. I
identified FTC as an organization with both the interest and the resources to devote to
examining this issue and to following through with the findings. From the beginning of
my study, I involved the leadership and staff of FTC in my research process, discussing
with them what they were particularly interested in learning about FTC‘s relationship
with diverse audiences, and how they hoped to use my results. As my research progressed
I found that, while there was continuous interest in my project, it was difficult to maintain
consistent contact with key staff, as they all had very busy schedules. However, as much
as possible, I sought input from FTC, and I have worked with staff to determine how my
research will be applied.
3.3 Illuminative evaluation
A third methodology I employed is illuminative evaluation. Illuminative
evaluation is a general research strategy that stands in contrast to research methodologies
that follow a fixed and rigid research design. In illuminative evaluation ―investigators
observe, inquire further, and then seek to explain‖ (Parlett, 1997, p.17). Admittedly, this
strategy makes research steps somewhat unpredictable, as the researcher‘s inquiry is
constantly being redefined by emerging issues. ―Beginning with an extensive research
base, the researchers systematically reduce the breadth of their enquiry to give more
concentrated attention to the emerging issues. This ‗progressive focusing‘ permits unique
and unpredicted phenomena to be given due weight‖ (Parlett, 1997, p.18).
Illuminative evaluation is particularly useful when studying previously
unexamined topics, complex situations, and potentially uncomfortable situations, because
it allows the researcher to use interviews to explore a variety of topics. For example,
43
illuminative interviews will often draw out ideas that the interviewee may not have
previously had the opportunity to consider or express.
While illuminative evaluation is not necessarily associated with any specific
methodologies, but is rather a general strategy, there are still some general steps common
to researchers conducting illuminative evaluation. First, a researcher using an
illuminative approach must familiarize himself or herself with the subject of the study.
Next, the researcher will develop focused questions, might change emphasis and will
generally narrow observations to be ―more directed, systematic and selective‖ (Parlett,
1977, p.18). The third stage of illuminative research is seeking ―general principles
underlying the organization of the program, spotting patterns of cause and effect within
its operation and placing individual findings within a broader explanatory context‖
(Parlett, 1977, p.18). While these stages overlap, the ―progressive focusing permits
unique and unpredicted phenomena to be given due weight‖ (Parlett, 1977, p.18).
Throughout this process, a researcher using an illuminative approach must pay
particular attention to the introduction of bias into the research. Illuminative evaluation
has been criticized because the open-ended technique leaves room for subjective or
prejudiced progression of the research. While all research leaves room for subjective
interpretation, illuminative research demands a researcher‘s particular attention to the risk
of the introduction of personal bias.
I decided to use an illuminative approach to my study because the issue of
diversity and EE is both relatively unexplored and also potentially uncomfortable to
discuss. I found the approach useful starting with the beginning stages of my study. For
example, while I initially set out to explore FTC‘s relationship with diversity in general,
some of my initial conversations with FTC and EE professionals revealed a particular
interest in EE and Latino communities, so I decided to focus my study on this population.
Illuminative evaluation also continually allowed unexplored topics to develop in
interviews. My questions frequently elicited responses such as, ―Oh, I hadn‘t thought of
that before,‖ or ―nobody has asked me to consider that‖ from interviewees.
In one instance, when I was interviewing two Portland Public School
administrators, in different departments, about specific considerations for the Latino
population, one employee commented ―I haven‘t ever considered specific considerations
for those kids, it would be great to get some ideas from somewhere.‖ Before my eyes the
other employee reacted, ―Oh, I‘ll send some people I have to do a presentation for you.‖
The employees simply had not had the opportunity to discuss this topic previously.
44
3.2 Literature review and interviews:
My research was divided into an extensive literature review of current and past
literature regarding diversity in EE, the gathering of new qualitative data from three
groups, and the analysis of these data. The three groups included in the new data gathered
were (1) environmental educators concerned with diversity in EE; (2) employees of
Tryon State Park; and (3) current and potential partners of Tryon Creek and other
community members who work with the audiences that FTC is hoping to serve. As
stated on page 4, my goals for these interviews were to identify organizational and
curricular changes FTC could make to its youth education programs to better serve the
specific needs and interests of more diverse communities, to determine how FTC could
foster sustained relationships with these communities, and to determine how to evaluate
the success of its efforts. In addition, I hoped the results of the interviews would have
implications for not only FTC, but for similar organizations, as well.
The first group I interviewed, EE professionals, consisted of the directors of
education and general directors at a variety of nature centers, including small non-profits
and large institutions such as aquariums. I identified EE educators for the first group I
interviewed based on recommendations from networking amongst environmental
educators in the Pacific Northwest. I particularly targeted those people who were
identified to me as interested in issues of diversity in EE, who were from ethnic or racial
minorities themselves, or who had significant experience working with diverse
communities. About half of those people I interviewed were from an ethnic and/or racial
minority themselves. I interviewed a total of 8 people in this group in the Seattle and
Portland areas.
The second group of interviews I conducted was with individuals associated
directly the Tryon Creek State Park. This group included staff members of FTC, staff of
the state park, and volunteers with both organizations. My first interview with FTC was
with the Executive Director, in which we agreed on goals and methods for the study and
a long-term plan of how the results would be used. I identified other critical individuals to
interview based on recommendations from the Director, who provided helpful advice
about individuals who had interactions with the public, and who were interested in issues
of diversity and/or who played a part in the design or implementation of programs. I
completed 5 interviews in this category.
The third group of people I interviewed was comprised of representatives from
groups that work in conjunction with FTC, are clients of FTC, or have the potential to
45
become either. I identified these individuals based on reports from FTC and based on my
own research into audiences that FTC indicated an interest in reaching in the community.
I interviewed 5 people in this category, including teachers, community leaders and
directors of organizations.
For all interviews I used a standardized method. All subjects were asked to sign
a human subjects review form that explained to them that the interviews would be kept
anonymous, but would be recorded both with a tape recorder and written notes. Subjects
were given the option of having the recording and note taking stopped for any section of
the interview they did not want a record of. Most interviews lasted about one hour, and
some subjects were interviewed on more than one occasion. While I approached every
interview with a list of questions, all interviews took on a relatively loose format where
the interviewee was encouraged to steer the conversation towards topics that they found
relevant. As mentioned above, this illuminative technique is associated with opening the
research up to previously unidentified, but critical themes. ―The open ended nature of the
approach allows the subjects to answer from their own frame of reference rather than
from one structured by prearranged questions,‖ and thus allows them to introduce
perspectives that hadn‘t been anticipated (Bogdan, 1992, p.3).
Content from all the interviews was transcribed and analyzed for references
related to specific themes (Silverman, 2006). In total, my sample size of interviewees was
relatively small (total of 18 interviews). In general, interview-based qualitative research
involves small sample sizes because of the amount of detail sought, as opposed to breadth
of responses (Bogdan, 1992). As a result of small sample size, I was unable to offer
statistically significant information on the relative strengths of themes and responses;
however I have tried to give an impression of relative frequencies of responses as
precisely as possible. All quotes have been anonymously attributed (anonymous teacher,
Director of Education, State Park staff, etc).
For the group of EE professionals, the interviews were analyzed for references to
(1) current problems and successes in working with diverse audiences in EE, (2) ideas for
improving EE for diverse audiences, and (3) specific references to working with Latino
communities in EE. For the group of interviews with FTC and state park employees, the
interviews were analyzed for references to (1) current problems and successes in working
with diverse audiences in EE, (2) ideas for improving EE for diverse audiences, (3)
specific references to working with Latino communities in EE, and (4) willingness or
resistance to accommodating diverse audiences. These interviews were supplemented by
46
a review of relevant documents related to programs available and program attendance
records. For the group of teachers and current or potential partners for FTC, the
interviews were analyzed for references to (1) current problems and successes in working
with FTC, (2) goals or interests in pursuing relationships with FTC, and (3) general ideas
related to improving EE service to diverse communities.
My final recommendations and conclusions are the result of combining and
synthesizing information obtained from the literature review and all sets of interviews.
47
Chapter 4: Interview and research data
4.1 Interviews with environmental education professionals about
environmental education and diversity in general
The ideas that emerged from my conversations with EE professionals in the
Seattle and Portland areas can be categorized into two themes. The first theme relates to
patterns of challenge and failure of EE for diverse audiences. The second theme relates to
past and current successes in serving diverse audiences, and what these individuals have
learned about improving service to diverse audiences in EE programs. All interviews
with EE professionals opened with a general conversation about the definition of
diversity, particularly within the context of EE. For the majority of EE professionals,
Latino communities were central to their concerns about effective EE programming for
diverse audiences; this population came up consistently in anecdotes throughout the
interviews.
4.1.1 Challenges, failures and barriers to serving diverse audiences
All EE professionals interviewed referenced the failure of EE programs to
effectively reach diverse audiences. The themes that related to this failure were the lack
of diversity amongst EE professionals, the fact that much lip service is paid to diversity
but few practical advances have been made to actually improve EE for diverse audiences,
and the lack of involvement of diverse communities in planning EE programming. One
EE professional additionally blamed the failure of EE programs to reach diverse
audiences on factors embedded in society at large.
About three-fourths of the EE professionals interviewed referenced the
overwhelming homogeneity amongst EE practitioners. They noted that EE remains a
field dominated by Whites. One EE professional noted, ―I recently went to a national EE
conference, and I know it can be problematic to size up a group just by looking at them,
but my first impression was that this group was overwhelmingly, homogenously, White.
It was, wow, really striking to me‖ (Anonymous Director of an EE program).
About three-fourths of the EE professionals also indicated that many programs
only cursorily address issues of diversity. ―A lot of programs say they want ‗diversity‘ in
their organization, but they don‘t make the effort to really consider what changes this
would mean‖ (Anonymous Director of an EE program). About half of the EE
professionals specifically indicated that if an organization is interested in addressing
48
issues of diversity it is important to examine it at all levels, from within its audience to
amongst members of its board. In addition, about one-fourth of the EE professionals
mentioned that involvement of members from diverse communities in EE was often
perfunctory, even if the involvement of diverse individuals was actively sought. ―People
of color get cynical because they feel like an afterthought,‖ noted one EE professional.
―You can tell when your input is really being included. It really keeps people from
coming back to participate when they don‘t feel like their stake in decisions is as
important as everyone else‘s‖ (Anonymous Director of an EE program).
Only one EE professional pointed to more fundamental, societal failures related to
EE and diversity. ―Most of us aren‘t consciously prejudiced, but it‘s ingrained in the
societal framework so subtly it‘s automatic. We need to become more conscious of it,
mindful and self-aware, and make it less of a taboo topic. Until we address this on a
societal level we will still have problems‖ (Anonymous Director of an EE program). This
EE professional also stated a need to reconsider fundamental approaches to EE, such as
the need to broaden the definition of environment to include urban considerations.
Additionally, this individual suggested partnering with other groups, such as
environmental justice groups, to reach diverse communities, but mentioned that these
groups often don‘t get involved because they receive little notice from mainstream
groups. ―Many groups doing EE for diverse audiences aren‘t on the radar because they
are not traditional programs‖ (Anonymous Director of an EE program).
4.1.2 Recommendations for improved outreach
While all EE professionals identified ways in which they perceive EE as failing
diverse audiences, they also all identified successes they had had in reaching diverse
audiences. Several themes stood out as central strategies to addressing issues of
diversity. These strategies were outreach, the inclusion of multiple languages in programs
and materials, biculturalism (or cultural competence), diversity of staff and volunteers
(and providing role models), partnerships, the logistics of meeting goals, and specific
considerations of distinct audiences.
The first strategy, noted by three-fourths of the EE professionals as important,
was related to outreach to diverse communities. Of these individuals, about half indicated
that different outreach techniques were required for specific audiences. Learning which
particular outreach techniques work for different communities was identified as
something that ―goes a long way to make communities feel you are invested in them‖
49
(EE professional). For example, another EE professional noted what he learned about the
subtleties of culturally appropriate outreach techniques, from conducting informational
meetings about his program for Latino communities.
At the first one we served hamburgers and hot dogs.
Some of the kids were trying them, but the adults
weren‘t really taking them, or were just throwing them
away. Responsiveness wasn‘t that great at that meeting.
After that I started getting local restaurants to cater tacos
and burritos. It‘s amazing how far serving three-milkcake [pastel de tres leches] instead of donuts will go.
When parents see that sort of thing they know you have
an investment in them. (Anonymous Director of an EE
program)
Food was referenced as central to effective outreach in many communities by about onefourth of the EE professionals. Serving food, especially food appropriate to the
community, was described as a way to both get people in the door and to get them to
come back.
About half of the EE professionals that I interviewed also indicated the
importance of doing outreach that actually engages communities where they are, before
expecting them to come to a program, especially if the program is outside the community.
One educator advised, ―Go to them; don‘t expect them to come to you. Find out about the
community and their background and meet them in the middle‖ (Anonymous EE
professional).
These educators suggested that it was easier to do this type of outreach through
partner organizations or schools, as opposed to randomly in the community. ―Reaching
out to parents and communities through school is good, because reaching out to families
randomly is hard‖ (Anonymous EE professional). About one quarter of the EE
professionals indicated that churches were particularly good places to do outreach. ―If
you can get a pastor from a church to get the whole community out for an event, that is a
good way to give people a first exposure to your program, as a group‖ (Anonymous EE
professional). Another EE professional agreed, saying,
Pastors are great at getting messages to large
communities, if you can get them on board. And a lot of
these diverse communities we want to reach are
religious. So beyond school that is a good way. You can
go to them, and host a dinner or something and talk
about what you do, and then invite them out, maybe
organize an event just for its group. It‘s good exposure.
(Anonymous EE professional)
50
About one-quarter of the EE professionals mentioned the importance of these
strategic partnerships in outreach strategies. ―By partnering with organizations that serve
Latino communities, we don‘t have to do outreach or registration on our own‖
(Anonymous Director of an EE program). Still, another quarter of the EE professionals
interviewed suggested general advertising in local papers in a variety of languages, in
order to reach diverse audiences.
A second theme that all but one of the EE professionals interviewed mentioned
was the importance of incorporating multiple languages and cultures into programs or
organizational materials. When EE professionals were asked what their organizations did
to address issues of diversity, the most common first answer was to mention the
translation of materials, or the hiring of Spanish speakers.
While language was identified as a critical aspect of serving diverse
communities, one-quarter of the EE professionals emphasized that it could only go so far.
―I am not sure language really is the key. I think we need biculturalism more than
bilingualism‖ (Anonymous EE professional). Biculturalism, or cultural competence, is
the third theme identified as important in reaching out to diverse audiences. While not all
EE professionals referenced cultural competence by name, more than half of the
environmental professionals described examples of how a lack of cultural competence
has inhibited effective EE in their organization. In many cases a program‘s lack of
attention to cultural issues prevented students from even attending programs.
Parents from the Russian community were holding back
their students [from attending our program]. Then it
came out from a teacher that parents were uncomfortable
with the fact that we were using these nature nicknames
instead of our real names. For us it‘s this goofy fun thing
we do, but for them it was raising suspicion – this real
lack of trust. They were like, why won‘t they tell us
their real names? We don‘t want to send our kids away
with them (Anonymous Director of an EE program).
We send a list home with suggestions of things to bring
to our program. We mean it as a suggestion, but a lot of
our families take it as literally a list of things they should
be able to provide, and many low-income families can‘t,
so they keep their kids home. We‘ve had to reassess how
we present that, and think about how we can loan out
materials better to families who can‘t provide their own
equipment (Anonymous Director of an EE program).
51
Beyond being aware of whether programs are initially presented in a culturally
competent way, those EE professionals who mentioned cultural competence also
identified the importance of developing content that was culturally relevant and
appropriate to the intended audience. An EE professional who works with families in
which the parents are migrant workers indicated,
Parents have so many priorities; they won‘t be interested
or aware in [sic] your program unless it‘s framed
appropriately. I‘ve found that when we put in a message
about agriculture and health, it hits home. So if we want
to talk about the watershed, we talk about the use of
fertilizers and chemicals and what effects that has and
how they spread. They can see then that it impacts them
in serious ways on a daily basis. It gets attention
(Anonymous EE professional).
Still, more than three quarters of the EE professionals interviewed indicated that
they were not aware of any special considerations of how to frame messages for diverse
audiences. More than half of EE professionals indicated they had received little training
or access to resources regarding learning about cultural competence. One individual,
particularly concerned with cultural competence, was aware of this lack of training
amongst her colleagues. She emphasized the need to train teachers and educators in
cultural competence, saying ―Massive retraining in cultural competence is necessary‖
(Anonymous Director of an EE program).
I conducted one interview that involved speaking to two people involved in EE
education in different departments of the same organization. When I asked about whether
one EE professional trained his staff in issues of cultural competency specific to working
with Latino communities, he responded that he wasn‘t aware of specific things that would
be relevant to discuss with staff, although he thought this information would be helpful.
The other interviewee indicated that amongst his staff there were several Latino educators
who would be happy to share their experiences and to prepare a training session on
cultural competency specific to the Latino community. This type of networking, related
to cultural competency, appeared to be rare amongst EE programs.
Although over half of the EE professionals who referred to issues of cultural
competence (with or without using the term) emphasized issues of ethnicity and race,
about one quarter of the EE professionals also indicated the importance of being aware of
class distinctions, and the interplay between class, race and ethnicity. One individual
who works with a particularly racially and ethnically diverse population felt that factors
52
related to social class kept people away from the programs they offered, more than
factors of race or ethnicity. ―Kids might not want to ask their parents for money for a
field trip, or the parents might be embarrassed to apply for a scholarship. I think income
shuts people out‖ (Anonymous Director of EE program).
A fourth consideration brought up by about three-quarters of the EE
professionals interviewed was the integration of diversity into staff, interns, and
volunteers, not only into the audiences they were reaching out to. About half of EE
professionals indicated that diversity within the organization was important because it
presented role models to students from diverse backgrounds. One individual also
indicated that diversity amongst staff helped to integrate the issues relevant to these
communities more deeply into the organizations. ―Having a person of color in a role
model position in this field is important for all students, not just for students of
color…and it brings relevant issues to communities into the programs that you just aren‘t
going to have without those direct voices‖ (Anonymous Director of EE program).
While recruiting staff and volunteers from diverse audiences was described as
important, there were many barriers referenced to successfully meeting this goal. One EE
professional noted that many people from diverse backgrounds do not have the time or
resources to devote to volunteering in unpaid positions. ―I don‘t want to make
generalizations, but realistically a lot of minority communities we want to involve are
financially less stable than our White audiences. And they just can‘t afford the luxury of
working with us for free when they already have two, three jobs‖ (Anonymous Director
of EE program). Financial restrictions were also cited as barriers to recruiting diverse
staff. ―These positions don‘t pay well, and aren‘t exactly attractive to people that don‘t
have the luxury of making a little less‖ (Anonymous Director of EE program).
About one-quarter of the EE professionals interviewed specifically mentioned the
difficulty of recruiting diverse high school youth for summer volunteer programs. ―Most
of these kids don‘t have the luxury of taking unpaid summer jobs, even if they are
interested‖ (Anonymous Director of EE program). Internships were described as an
important step to further pursuing positions in EE or the environmental field in general,
so including diverse students in these programs was cited as particularly significant. ―Our
internship program is a teacher factory,‖ described one individual. ―You look at the
demographic [of our interns] and that‘s the future science and environmental teachers we
are making here. Unfortunately, for a bunch of reasons, they just aren‘t a diverse group‖
(Anonymous Director of EE program).
53
A fifth consideration, referred to by about half of EE professionals, was creating
partnerships with other EE organizations and with other community groups. About onethird of EE professionals, all based in Portland, specifically noted that there was little
coordination among programs, which restricted both the effectiveness of programs, and
the ability to provide adequate programming to audiences on a citywide scale. A
Portland-based EE professional indicated,
There are a lot of groups in Portland doing good work.
And we could really be helping each other out, but there
isn‘t a lot of communication going on. People who work
these jobs are already strung thin, and don‘t exactly have
energy to network much. But I think a lot of good could
come of it (Anonymous Director of EE program).
EE professionals mentioned the following advantages of working in partnerships:
introducing communities to a variety of programs they might otherwise not be exposed
to, integrating different communities‘ concerns into a variety of programs, and sharing
resources. Ideas for partnerships ranged from sharing lists of volunteers and interns to
creating a citywide assessment of how EE programs are serving communities.
We have a list of lots of volunteers and paid student
interns, because we are in the schools recruiting all the
time. I would be willing to let them [FTC] know about
other opportunities if I knew about them, but it hasn‘t
come up (Anonymous Director of EE program).
What would be great is if METRO [Portland
metropolitan area regional government] could organize
something where EE programs from different areas of
town got together and share what they were doing and
who was getting what programs, and what they were
teaching. I would love it if teachers at a school could
coordinate use of resources. By the time kids got to
Outdoor School, in 6th grade, they would have already
had a range of experiences in different habitats. It could
be coordinated in an online forum, even (Anonymous
Director of EE program).
About one-quarter of EE professionals mentioned that creating a network among
EE programs would not only have the advantage of improving individual programs, but
would also be beneficial for improving the efficacy of programming for audiences on a
wider scale, throughout Portland. These EE educators indicated that it was important for
54
educators and communities to know what programs were available close to them, as well
as in the broader community.
I think sometimes it is worth bussing kids somewhere to
really give them an experience that isn‘t available in
their neighborhood. But in most areas we have resources
for people, and they just aren‘t known about, but they
can provide a lot for people if they are used (Anonymous
Director of EE program).
I think it is important to bring kids out here from the
city, because there isn‘t an area like this where they are.
But there are a lot of places for them to have nature
experiences where they are. I think programs like ours
should provide teachers and students with packets about
resources in their neighborhoods, and suggest they go
there as a class or with their family. That involves some
organizing though, to be done well (Anonymous EE
professional).
Currently, no EE professionals were able to point to a central listing of EE programs in
the area that teachers or individuals could use. One individual mentioned,
The OEEA [Oregon Environmental Education
Association] is supposed to have that list on their
webpage as something teachers can go to for resources.
But it still hasn‘t been put up yet. Teachers don‘t really
know all their options, or have suggestions of how to
bring things together. And we don‘t really know what
schools are getting exposed to what programs, and how
programming is coming together for kids as they go to
different programs over time (Anonymous EE
professional).
A sixth theme related to reaching diverse audiences, which emerged from about
half of this set of interviews, was the logistics of reaching goals related to diversity. As
already mentioned, many EE professionals referred to the problem of setting vague goals
related to diversity without coming up with a concrete, long-term, funded plan. One
individual referred specifically to the importance of appointing a staff member to be
dedicated to diversity issues. ―A lot of this stuff is relational. Just building relationships
with communities. And that needs a face to it; someone who will show a genuine interest
and stick with it over time‖ (Anonymous EE professional). Another EE professional
mentioned a different important logistical issue related to designing programs for diverse
communities: the long term feasibility of continuing programs that are designed for these
audiences. ―Some of these programs, like going out to schools for visits before inviting
55
them, cost a lot. If you have a grant for them, it‘s great, but it‘s not that sustainable. Feebased is really better‖ (Anonymous Director of EE program).
A seventh and final theme that emerged from this set of interviews was reaching
out to specific, diverse audiences. While most references to diversity were implied to be
towards racial, ethnic or economic diversity in general, about one-quarter of EE
professionals focused their efforts on a specific group or groups. While some overall
strategies were presented as universal, some outreach and program adaptation was
described as being specific to different communities. EE professionals particularly
referenced outreach specific to Latinos, Native Americans and recent immigrants from a
variety of nations. Almost all of the EE professionals with whom I spoke noted that they
have noticed the most demographic shift in Latino visitors to their programs, so have
made some attempt to focus on outreach to this group.
4.2 Interviews with Tryon Creek State Park
4.2.1 State park staff interviews
Because of the close relationship between the Friends of Tryon Creek (FTC) and
the state park, it is imperative to understand the perspective and goals of the state park
staff related to issues of diversity, in conjunction with those of FTC. Interviews with
state park employees revealed the state park staff‘s perspective on diversity at the park,
including their goals related to diversity, as well as barriers to achieving these goals.
State park employees tended to frame issues of diversity at the park within a larger
framework of achieving diversity in Oregon‘s state parks in general.
4.2.1.1 Challenges, failures and barriers to serving diverse audiences
Employees all indicated that a lack of diversity amongst visitors to the park was
associated with a discrepancy between programs available at parks and the typical use
patterns of diverse communities. ―The parks and the programs we have were designed by
one group, and designed to fill its needs. For a variety of reasons our workforce isn‘t
representative of the real demographics out there‖ (Anonymous state park employee).
One state park employee expressed concern that not attracting more diverse communities
to the park would put state parks, as a resource, at risk. ―As Caucasians get smaller as a
group what does that mean when we have to make decisions about our parks as a
resource? If the majority of people don‘t feel connected to them or value them, then we‘ll
be in trouble‖ (Anonymous State Park employee).
56
State park employees pointed to a variety of barriers to recruiting diverse
audiences to the park. First, was difficulty in outreach to these populations. ―It‘s a good
idea to do outreach to church groups or social groups. But I don‘t know how to do that
recruitment. I‘m not going to walk into an all-Black church and say ‗I‘m the White guy
from the government, come to my park.‘ We need to make some sort of connection, or
establish a liaison first‖ (Anonymous state park employee). According to one state park
employee, the Forest Service has a human rights representative who serves as a liaison
for them. In a similar position at the state park‘s headquarters, however, the ‗diversity
specialist,‘ was not seen to be helpful. ―We are not sure what she does, really. We get an
email from her once in awhile like, ‗it‘s Black history month – celebrate.‘ And we say,
‗OK…but what can you tell us about the diversity of our applicant pool?‘‖ (Anonymous
state park employee).
The state park uniform that the rangers wear was also cited by one employee as a
barrier to making connections with certain communities. ―Especially in communities of
new immigrants or when there is already some nervousness, with a language barrier or
something, I‘ve noticed the uniforms can make it uncomfortable‖ (Anonymous state park
employee).
Another barrier referred to by all state park employees interviewed was the fact
that the staff of the state parks is already stretched thin. ―Diversity is something that we
are aware of but effort isn‘t really being put into addressing it. You get paralyzed by the
largeness of it, by fear of being patronizing or doing the wrong thing‖ (Anonymous state
park employee). Further, even when a program was proposed, staff members have little
energy to dedicate to it. ―When a program for a specific audience comes up some staff
are going to go, ‗Great, I‘ll just fit that in…when?‘‖ (Anonymous state park employee).
4.2.1.2 Successes in serving diverse audiences
Despite these difficulties, Tryon Creek State Park was described by one state
park employee as being in a special position as an urban state park for reaching diverse
audiences, and employees pointed to several successes and ideas for the future. One
factor cited as putting Tryon Creek State Park in a good position to address issues of
diversity is its urban location. ―There is discomfort for a lot of people to go to rural
areas, either for employment or to recreate. There aren‘t those kinds of dangers here, so
it‘s not as scary in that way‖ (Anonymous state park employee). The park was also seen
as in a good position to address the needs of a variety of populations because of its
57
relative proximity to so many communities. ―We are a day trip for the majority of the
population of Oregon‖ (Anonymous state park employee).
One state park employee pointed to several programs implemented specifically to
target issues of diversity. However, these programs were all described as having met with
limited success. The first was outreach intended to increase diversity of the applicant
pool. Many state park employees come out of the School of Forestry at Oregon State
University. ―That demographic itself is pretty homogeneous, so we‘ve been working on
that. But it‘s an issue now‖ (Anonymous state park employee). Another program targeted
at underserved groups is ―Let‘s Go Camping,‖ which is organized in conjunction with
FTC. ―It‘s a good program, and always fills up, but we now see we need to do different
kinds of outreach to reach people in different communities...‖ (Anonymous state park
employee).
Another program designed to serve diverse communities was a 5-6 week
experience for students nominated by teachers at low-income schools, to learn about
forestry issues. While it met with limited success in its first year, improvements were
being designed for the program‘s second year. ―It was disappointing because last year we
threw it together in two weeks and, in talking to the kids, they weren‘t that into it...This
year they are going to get some school credits for it, and we are going to do a better job
preparing for them, making it exciting‖ (Anonymous state park employee). No specific
mention was made of how the program could specifically change to suit the audience.
4.2.1.3 Recommendations for improved outreach
State park employees had ideas for even more strategies to reach out to diverse
audiences. However, according to staff, ―Headquarters just doesn‘t have the juice,‖ for
many of these ideas (Anonymous state park employee). For example, one staff member
suggested adopting an idea from Wyoming State Parks in which single mothers receive
assistance to visit state parks that charge fees. ―That program is underwritten by the
health and human services agency there. That is a good idea. I think if we link the
positive health effects of outdoor experiences with the association with obesity and
unhealthiness of living below the poverty line, it could be good‖ (Anonymous state park
employee).
Another idea for developing a better relationship with diverse audiences was to
create focus groups to elicit ―what do people want?‖ One idea was to use focus groups to
determine how to create EE messages that would resonate with different groups. ―I‘ve
58
never thought of this before, but when we do our interpretive walks we try to tell
messages that connect to things that resonate culturally. I wonder if we could think about
telling stories that resonate with different cultures‖ (Anonymous state park employee).
A state park employee indicated that there were several specific diverse groups in
the area that would be relevant to reach. ―There is a growing population of Muslims and
Somalis and Latinos in the area. Since 1995, outside maybe the 2-3 mile immediate
radius, there have been large ethnic and economic shifts‖ (Anonymous state park
employee). State park staff emphasized that it was important to deliberately invite these
communities to the park. ―It‘s not that people don‘t feel welcome. I think it‘s that many
people don‘t know we are here, even pretty close by‖ (Anonymous state park employee).
The FTC programs that work with schools were given credit by state park staff as being
an important means of advertising the park‘s presence within diverse communities. While
FTC staff was the impetus for examining issues of diversity in its programs in this thesis
project, all state park employees interviewed were in support of exploring these issues.
Furthermore, state park staff agreed with the importance of examining the park‘s
relationship with Latinos specifically, however, they suggested that addressing diversity
should not be limited to this group.. ―I think it is important to start somewhere but also to
make sure that by focusing on reaching out to one community you aren‘t leaving out the
need to reach everybody‖ (Anonymous state park employee).
4.2.2 Friends of Tryon Creek staff interviews and information from FTC
records
Interviews with the staff of Friends of Tryon Creek revealed similar themes to
those brought up by state park staff. While everyone at FTC was enthusiastic, responsive
and eager to improve access and the effectiveness of FTC programs to Latino
communities, I found that overall the staff of FTC had little time to dedicate to addressing
issues of diversity at the park. I did become aware of several scholarship and grant
programs that FTC had designed to improve access (transportation and economic) to the
park. The examination of FTC records as well as interviews with FTC staff highlighted
the successes of current scholarship and grant-funded programs directed at diverse
audiences. This search also revealed several particular barriers to reaching and serving
Latino communities. However, little time had been spent considering outreach to diverse
audiences, or specific considerations for effective education for these audiences.
59
4.2.2.1 Current service to diverse audiences
Interviews with the staff of FTC demonstrated that FTC has consistently reached
out to communities outside the immediate vicinity to bring people from a variety of
means and backgrounds to visit and attend programs at the park. The two main ways FTC
has attempted this is through scholarship programs and partnerships. FTC records reveal
significant information regarding these programs; however, the information is not kept in
a systematic format. For example, FTC does not have a consistent way of tracking the
scholarships provided to either camp or school programs or any data on the specific
demographics of the populations receiving scholarships.
FTC raises money to fund scholarships both by soliciting contributions from
private donors, and by applying for grants for specific programs. Although FTC has a
policy of not providing any free programs, it attempts to offer 10% of all its programs at
very low, reduced cost. However, I was told that no school with over 50% of students
qualifying for free or reduced lunch, and no individual who meets application
requirements, is turned down. FTC advertises the availability of financial assistance for
camps, school fieldtrips and other programs through outreach and advertising materials
(all of these materials are in English).
A staff member at FTC indicated to me that the total amount of scholarships
given to school programs fluctuates year to year. In 2008, the total scholarship amount
given was $8366. However, in 2007 the total scholarship amount given was $5812. In
2008, 18% of schools (10 schools) received assistance to pay for programs at the park
(one-time visits to the park for up to 60 students). The average scholarship given paid for
83% of the cost of the program. (As schools and communities with low-income and
diverse students are located at a distance from the park, financial assistance is also
necessary to provide transportation to the park. FTC is able to offer financial assistance
for transportation for its school programs through the Oregon Forestry Resource Institute,
and has applied for grant money to provide transportation for student internship
programs.) In total, in 2008, FTC provided $2217-worth of scholarships to school
programs. In both 2006 and 2007, however, FTC gave away approximately the same
number of scholarships each year (about 10) but the amount covered by the scholarship
was only 50% (average) for a total of $1126 (average).
Scholarships given to individual families to attend camp similarly fluctuate year
to year. Camp scholarships are given both to individuals who apply directly (applicants
must submit a letter and a form including financial information), and to individuals who
60
apply through partner organizations, who have arrangements with FTC to offer camp
experiences at discounts to its constituents. From 2006-2008 the percentage of camp
tuition paid by scholarship ranged from 25% to almost 100% (all campers were asked to
pay at least a nominal fee). The average scholarship covered 77% of the camp tuition
fee. (Total camp tuition ranges from $119-$275). In 2008, FTC had 907 campers total
and gave 36 scholarships (the numbers for 2006 are similar). In 2007, however, FTC
gave only 21 camp scholarships. This difference might be attributed to the fact that FTC
held fewer camps in 2007 (673 campers total), or to scheduling conflicts with a partner
organization with whom it arranges many scholarships.
FTC also attempts to reach diverse communities through partnerships with other
community organizations. The administration noted that it had worked with a variety of
groups to varying degrees (see p.60 for information on these partnerships). For many
partner organizations, FTC‘s goal for the partnership is to attract participants to its
programs who might not otherwise be aware of, or be able to attend, programs at the
park. For these organizations, the partnership provides an opportunity to take part in
programs that would be difficult for community members associated with the group to
attend without special outreach or assistance. Other partnerships offer opportunities for
both organizations to work towards common goals, often on specific projects. Overall
FTC‘s partnerships fall under several categories: partnerships that identify individuals
and give them financial assistance to attend camps and classes at FTC, and partnerships
that organize one-time or repeat events with other organizations and FTC.
While FTC has some established scholarships and partnerships, little other
outreach or consideration of diversity has been done formally or consistently at the park.
Staff members indicted that they do not target outreach to any groups in particular or
tailor programs for any different groups. ―I don‘t feel we gear our programs to
populations; we do try to make them accessible to people by making them low-cost
though. We don‘t try to reach out to any groups in particular. We do reach a wide group
in the metro area though.‖
According to FTC staff, most of the diversity in audiences at FTC can be
attributed to the elementary school programs. In 2008, FTC conducted 91 field trips at the
park. Fifty-seven of these groups were from public schools, 25 from private schools and 9
from scout troops. While there is no available demographic information for either the
scout troops or private schools, data from the public schools that visited the park
demonstrate the income diversity and Latino populations among the schools that visited
61
the park (see Figures 6 and 7). The data reveal that while FTC programs do serve some
low-income and Latino students, these populations make up a moderate percentage of
overall program attendees.
Fig.6.
Percentage of students who qualify for free and reduced lunch at schools who visited
FTC in 2008
Number of schools
Percentage of Students who
Qualify for Free and
Reduced Lunch at Schools
who visited FTC in 2008*
15
10
5
0
Percentage of students who qualify for free and
reduced lunch
*State average: 39%
Fig.7.
Percentage of students who identify as Latino at schools visiting FTC in 2008
Number of schools
30
20
Percentage of students who
identify as Latino at schools
visiting FTC in 2008*
10
0
Percentage
of students
identify
as Latino
at
0-10%
10-20%
20-30% who
30-40%
40-50%
50-60%
schools visiting FTC in 2008
* State average: 12%
FTC advertises its school programs by sending paper and email advertisements to
public and private schools. These school programs expose many students and families to
62
the park who might not otherwise hear about it. While FTC does outreach throughout the
region, some public school districts have a much better response rate, including two
districts in which all elementary schools send students. Both of these districts are
relatively far from the park (about 10-25 miles away), and both have schools with many
students on free and reduced lunch (48% and 34%), indicating that perhaps
administrative encouragement or word of mouth has promoted FTC in this district more
than the simple availability of the park or resources of the school.
Staff members indicated that they attract more low-income school audiences to
FTC than some other EE programs in the area because, even without scholarships or
assistance, its costs are relatively low. However, I found FTC costs to be comparable to
other programs in the area. FTC charges $4.50-$7.00 per student for a field trip to the
park, depending on the length of the visit, whereas a similar program at Audubon, for
example, charges $3.00-$5.00 dollars per student.
4.2.2.2 Challenges, failures and barriers to reaching diverse audiences
While FTC has achieved some success in reaching diverse audiences, particularly
elementary school children, conversations with the staff of FTC brought up several
barriers to effectively reaching diverse audiences and addressing diversity at the park in
general. The barriers consistently referenced by staff members include the reputation of
the park, time constraints of staff, lack of diversity of staff, and the park‘s location.
One barrier mentioned by all FTC staff interviewed was the reputation of the
park as uniquely catering to the neighborhood. One staff member illustrated this
reputation by describing an experience she had had at a local environmental conference.
At the conference she was chatting with another EE professional from the area, and
mentioned that she worked at FTC. The other EE educator‘s response was, ―Oh, so you
work at that yuppie park.‖ Other FTC staff members and state park staff mentioned that
they were also aware of this reputation, and explained that it might discourage some
audiences from visiting the park. To the contrary, however, one staff member explained
that she believed people‘s lack of awareness of the existence of the park kept them away
more than an impression of being unwelcome.
Another barrier that was suggested by all interviews with FTC staff was that,
overall, they have little time to dedicate to evaluating FTC‘s current programming or to
considering issues of diversity. For example, one staff member indicated that FTC had
long planned to create pre- and post-visit packets for students who visit the park, but that
63
no staff member had had time to dedicate to this project yet. Several staff members in the
past have been particularly interested in issues of diversity at the park, including a Latino
who was interested in creating bilingual and bicultural programming. However, even
these highly motivated staff had had little or no opportunity to allocate energy towards
projects related to diversity.
Similarly, an evaluation of FTC‘s current programming with regards to diversity,
has been prevented by constraints of time and financial resources. FTC has been lucky to
have some interns conduct teacher surveys, but these surveys did not examine how
teachers working with different demographics differed in their experiences at the park,
because the students did not have time to delve into this question. Similarly, the current
review of the EE programs at the park is not specifically examining the FTCs service to
diverse audiences, in part because funding for the research cut the research projects‘
timeline in half.
Lack of time to dedicate to projects related to diversity has also resulted in
inconsistent partnership relationships with community groups, as opportunities and staff
members change frequently. While FTC has worked with a number of organizations, few
of these relationships have been consistent. One frustration with maintaining partner
relationships was that individuals involved in the partner organizations were also
inconsistent about attending programs. For example, FTC conducted outreach about
family programs at a transitional home for homeless families, however, many of those
families who registered for programs after this meeting did not attend programs, as
planned.
Another obstruction to addressing issues of diversity at FTC, which was
commented on in all interviews with FTC staff, is the lack of diversity at all levels of the
organization, from high school interns to board members. Addressing diverse interests,
especially with limited staff time, can be done if those interests are naturally incorporated
into the structure of the programs through diverse staff and volunteers. One simple way
this would play out is in diversity of languages spoken. One staff member indicated that
there were few staff or volunteers capable of speaking a foreign language, who are
available to work with diverse populations, or do outreach. ―It‘s hard to do outreach to
Spanish speakers when you don‘t speak Spanish, and don‘t have that to offer them‖
(Anonymous FTC employee).
A final barrier to diversity at the park, mentioned by all FTC staff interviewed, is
the park‘s location. Although the park is located within the Portland city region, it is
64
situated in one of the most secluded, White, and affluent areas of town. Although public
transportation (buses) serves the neighborhood and some locations near trailheads, the
closest stop to the nature center is about 1 mile from the park. Portland is lucky to have
many parks in and around the city, so while FTC may provide some unique resources and
programs, Tryon Creek State Park is simply not conveniently located for many people.
4.3 Interviews with teachers and partner organizations involved with Latino
communities
Currently, FTC provides programming to Latino communities mainly through
school programs and through partnerships with community groups. Both of these
opportunities provide avenues to conduct outreach to attract Latino students and families
to other programs at the park. I conducted interviews with teachers who work with
primarily Latino students and have brought them to the park, as well as with Latino-based
community groups that have partnered with the park, or could do so in the future. Both
sets of interviews revealed some themes related to what has gone well in their
relationship with FTC and challenges and failures of this relationship. Both sets of
interviews also suggested ways that FTC could improve its connection with Latino
communities.
4.3.1 School Programs
4.3.1.1 Successes of school programs in serving Latino communities
Several themes stood out, related to the success of programs for Latino students,
from interviews with teachers who work primarily with Latino students and have brought
them to the park. These themes include that the program is relatively low cost, that the
programs at Tryon prepare students and families for the Outdoor School experience in 6th
grade, and that the programs are strongly tied to state benchmarks.
All teachers interviewed indicated that they were only able to bring their students
to the program because of the generous scholarship assistance. ―With our school budget
and the family budgets of my students, there is no way we could come if it wasn‘t mostly
paid for‖ (Anonymous teacher). Teachers affirmed that FTC‘s scholarships were
exceptional compared to similar programs. ―When I tell other teachers about the fantastic
scholarships I get to bring my kids out here, people are always shocked. Especially when
I tell them I‘ve never been turned down either‖ (Anonymous teacher).
65
Another theme related to the success of the FTC programs, with regards to
working with Latino youth, is that the FTC program prepares the students for the Outdoor
School experience in 6th grade. All teachers interviewed indicated that many of their
students had had little experience in forests and that exposure to forested areas before
Outdoor School helped make that later experience more valuable. ―Most of my students‘
experience outdoors has only been as wild as city parks. When I bring my kids here I
usually hear-‗I thought this was a park, where are the swings?‘ and really see devastation
on their faces. Gaining even a little familiarity with the experience does a great job
preparing students for Outdoor School‖ (Anonymous teacher).
Further, one teacher indicated that families who had experienced sending their
children on a field trip to a forest were more comfortable later on allowing their children
to attend Outdoor School. ―It can be hard to convince families to send their kids to
Outdoor School. It‘s a big issue with Russian families. Less Latino families hold their
kids back, I think because it is a cultural thing to have trust for the teacher. But Latino
migrant families certainly are more hesitant sending their kids out, especially the first
time‖ (Anonymous teacher).
This teacher also emphasized that preparing students for successful Outdoor
School experiences was critical, as Outdoor School is renowned for pushing students into
further interest in studying and working in the environmental field. ―I don‘t know if my
vision really plays out, but I know that Outdoor Schools can teach kids about alternatives
to working at the mini-mart‖ (Anonymous teacher).
Another theme mentioned by all teachers interviewed was that the FTC programs
are strongly tied to state benchmarks. ―I know a lot of teachers, especially in tough
schools, that are overwhelmed by what they are working with. They have no time left for
anything that is not tied directly to the established curriculum and benchmarks‖
(Anonymous teacher).
4.3.1.2 Patterns of challenge or failure in serving Latino communities
While all teachers pointed to positive aspects of FTC‘s programs, they all also
referred to themes related to challenges and failures of FTC‘s school programs. These
trouble spots included the following: volunteers were not prepared to work with Spanish
speaking, urban youth; the actual programs were not designed for these students to be
successful; outreach (including advertisement of scholarships) was insufficient; and,
finally, pre- and -post visit materials were lacking.
66
All teachers interviewed suggested that the volunteers who led the programs did
not seem prepared to work with Spanish-speaking, urban youth. ―The volunteers are not
always prepared for not-White or not-affluent kids. Any kids who haven‘t been in a forest
before are going to be unruly and distracted. The volunteers don‘t tap into that energy,
though; they stay set on running the program as usual. You can see them get real
frustrated sometimes‖ (Anonymous teacher). Language was also mentioned by this
teacher as a barrier. ―I translate for my kids who need it when I go up there, because there
isn‘t a translator, but if they divide us up I can‘t be everywhere‖ (Anonymous teacher).
All teachers interviewed also mentioned that aspects of the programs were not set
up for students‘ success. ―When the programs aren‘t set up for success, of course the kids
are going to misbehave.‖ (Anonymous teacher). This teacher suggested that volunteers
adjust the focus of the program for some groups of kids. ―It‘s important that it is set up to
meet benchmarks, so we can justify coming out here but these kids really just need a
chance to explore and learn the rules on first visits. I think the volunteers don‘t always
appreciate that; they want to stick with the program‖ (Anonymous teacher).
Teachers further indicated several other elements of FTC‘s school programs that
were problematic for their demographic of students. For example, ―For kids struggling to
learn English, in this environment, a group size of 10 is just too big‖ (Anonymous
teacher). Another teacher indicated that the way rules were explained was insufficient for
their students, leading the students to be set up for failure. ―The rules need to be
rephrased with explanations of why they are in place. Why can‘t they gather cones? Pick
Trilliums? And they need a chance to go over them before the program, and once they get
to the park. Otherwise they just don‘t get it, it‘s all too overwhelming‖ (Anonymous
teacher).
4.3.1.3 Ideas for future improvement
Although all teachers working with Latino youth referred to challenges or
failures of FTC‘s school programs, they also referenced several practical ideas for the
improvement of their relationships with the park. These ideas included training current
volunteers and recruiting new volunteers to be prepared to work with Spanish-speaking,
urban youth, making some adjustments to program design, preparing pre- and post- visit
materials, and extending outreach efforts to schools and individual teachers.
One teacher recommended training and recruiting volunteers prepared to work
with Latino youth. She mentioned that having volunteers trained in Spanish was
67
important, but suggested that it was more important for volunteers to be trained in
specific considerations for students visiting a natural area for the first time, than to be
bilingual. Recruiting volunteers experienced in working with Latino youth, such as
parents, was identified as a solution. However, another teacher indicated that she had had
trouble working with parent volunteers. ―I‘ve had Russian and Latino parents come out
and they don‘t know the rules. They‘ll wander off and smoke or talk on the phone. They
don‘t know what‘s expected of them so they are nervous and don‘t know how to act‖
(Anonymous teacher).
Teachers also recommended several adjustments to program design and
implementation. First, one teacher recommended dedicating more time to explaining
rules to the students. She specifically suggested designing a homework assignment to
give students prior to coming on the trip which would ask students to consider the top 5
rules, illustrate each, and provide a short justification of the rule. She explained, ―They‘ll
get more out of it once they are there if expectations are really clear‖ (Anonymous
teacher). A teacher also recommended reducing group size and having students do more
hands-on activities, and a rotation between stations, as opposed to spending the whole
time wandering. This teacher indicated that EE programs she had attended with these
structural elements were successful for her students.
Another related suggestion that emerged from interviews with teachers was
teachers‘ interest in pre- and post-visit materials. One teacher indicated that this would
help prepare students to succeed on the trip, as well as help them to get more out of the
experience. The teacher above emphasized that the pre-packets would prepare students
for what would be expected of them at the park. However, one teacher also feared that
busy teachers would not take the time to use pre-and post-materials with their students.
This teacher suggested that materials be designed to be relevant to teachers and that their
importance be emphasized by the staff, if they are to be effective. ―I think busy teachers
will ignore packets, unless there is a reason not to.‖
A final suggestion that surfaced from interviews with teachers was the
enhancement of outreach to teachers. One teacher explained that not many teachers knew
about FTC. ―They [FTC] have great opportunities, but if you don‘t know the system, it‘s
hard to access‖ (Anonymous teacher). Another teacher suggested that improving outreach
in the teacher training programs would recruit teachers to bring their students to the park
and prepare them for the experience. ―If you don‘t offer to give teachers something, and
offer to train them, they won‘t come to you. You have to meet them with something
68
useful to them‖ (Anonymous teacher). While FTC has established teacher training
programs, this teacher stated that they are not well advertised. ―Outreach [for teacher
training] needs to be more personal than a flyer. Teachers need a reason to come out on a
weekend‖ (Anonymous teacher).
4.3.2 Partnerships
Interviews with existing and potential partner organizations also revealed themes
related to current successes, failures and ideas for future improvement of FTC‘s service
to Latino communities.
Organizations that FTC already works with include Verde, Hacienda Community
Development Corporation (Hacienda CDC), REACH, Friends of the Children, Headstart,
Neighborhood House, and SOLV (originally meaning ―Stop Oregon Litter and
Vandalism‖). These organizations include some groups that focus on serving the Latino
community (Hacienda CDC and Verde), low-income housing organizations, educational
organizations and environmental organizations. FTC has not collected any data on the
demographics of individuals brought to the park through partnerships. Most partnerships
operate either as either an opportunity to bring groups to the park for events such as ivypulls, or as referrals for individuals or families for scholarships. However, each
partnership works differently, depending on the specific needs and interests of the
organization.
Hacienda CDC is a housing complex in Northeast Portland providing affordable
housing and community support for working Latinos and other families. Hacienda CDC
also provides an assortment of educational and economic opportunities for its residents.
Hacienda CDC has partnered with FTC in a limited capacity to refer students and
families to the scholarship program.
Verde is a native plant nursery located in Portland, whose mission is to provide
environmental job training, employment and entrepreneurial opportunities, and to foster a
connection between economic vitality and environmental protection and restoration.
Verde targets these opportunities to residents of Hacienda CDC. In the past, Verde has
participated in small, one-time invasive removals with FTC. For Verde, these events have
served its goal to meaningfully engage the Latino communities with environmental
organizations. For FTC, these events have provided an ecological service and an
opportunity to introduce the park and FTC programs to individuals who might not
69
otherwise find out about them. Verde is interested in expanding its relationship with FTC;
however, currently no regular partnership exists.
REACH provides affordable housing opportunities and supportive services
throughout the Portland area. Currently, over 1,200 individuals live in homes provided by
REACH. Amongst REACH‘s many education and economic programs is a service that
assists families in REACH housing with finding and paying for summer camp
opportunities. REACH has been partnering with FTC for the past several years to provide
scholarships to its families to attend summer camp at FTC for a nominal fee. Every year
around a dozen students attend camp at FTC through this partnership.
Friends of the Children is a national organization that matches kindergarten
students identified as vulnerable with supportive mentors who maintain a consistent
relationship with them through their high school graduation. Friends of the Children has
partnered with FTC to refer students and families to the scholarship program.
Headstart is also a national organization, with seven classroom centers in
Portland. Headstart provides education and child and family support targeted at the 824
low-income 3-4 year olds and their families in Portland public schools. Headstart partners
with a variety of community and education programs to provide opportunities for
students and families. Headstart has partnered with FTC to refer students and families to
the scholarship program.
Neighborhood House provides social, emergency, and recreational services for
individuals and families residing in southwest Portland. Approximately 6,000 individuals
and families receive services from Neighborhood House every year. Nearly 75% are low
income and 50% are members of minority groups. FTC has partnered specifically with
Turning Point, Neighborhood House‘s transitional housing program for homeless
families. A focus of Turning Point is on providing educational and recreational activities
for children. Neighborhood House partners with FTC to refer students and families to the
scholarship program.
SOLV is a statewide, non-profit organization founded in 1969, which promotes
opportunities for government agencies, businesses and individual volunteers to
participate in programs and projects to improve Oregon. Every year, SOLV creates an
average of 50,000 volunteer opportunities across the state. SOLV partners with FTC to
coordinate one-time volunteer events, such as riparian improvement projects and invasive
removals. These events help FTC gain exposure, provide upkeep to the park, and help
SOLV by providing an opportunity to engage the public.
70
While FTC already has established multiple partnerships, there are several other
potential partner organizations within the region. Organizations that have similar EE
programming to FTC shared several ideas for potential partner organizations with strong
connections to the Latino community. Organizations FTC might consider partnering with
in the future include Adelante Mujeres, Open Meadow School, various ―after-school
programs,‖ and Portland Impact. All of these organizations could expose diverse
audiences, including many individuals and families from the Latino community, to FTC
and bring their voices to the park. FTC could provide these organizations with a quality
educational opportunity and resource, either by visiting these groups in their communities
or by inviting them to the park.
Adelante Mujeres, located in Forest Grove (near Portland), is a non-profit whose
mission is to educate and empower low-income Latina women and their families.
Adelante Mujeres currently provides education and other supportive services to Latina
women and their families throughout the Portland area. To date, 98 women and their
families have completed a full program of services with Adleante Mujeres and many
others have accessed services provided by the organization. Adelante Mujeres has
partnered with organizations similar to FTC in the past, and might be interested in
partnering with FTC for one-time events, such as invasive removals or stream restoration,
or in referring families or students to programs, volunteer opportunities and internships.
Open Meadow is a non-tuition private school for middle- and high-school
students who have not been able to succeed in traditional public schools. Many of the
school‘s programs include service-learning components. Open Meadow is a potential
partner for recruiting volunteers and interns, as well as for longer-term restoration
projects, which the school could include in its service-learning curriculum.
After-school programs, in general, also provide many opportunities for potential
partners, although funding for transportation might be a problem for some of these
programs. Schools Uniting Neighborhood (SUN) Community Schools is one network of
after-school programs, run as a partnership between Multnomah County Department of
Parks and Recreation and 54 low-income schools in 6 Portland area districts. At these
schools SUN conducts a variety of programs aimed at improving the academic
performance and overall health of students. SUN schools might be interested in
partnering with FTC to refer students, volunteers or interns, to host courses, workshops or
one-time events, or to have FTC visit its school or after-school programs.
71
Impact Northwest is another potential partner. The organization conducts a range
of programs aimed at increasing individuals‘ self-sufficiency and alleviating the effects
of poverty. Impact Northwest reaches 70,000 individuals a year through its educational,
economic, housing and other programs. Impact Northwest might be interested in
partnering with FTC to refer students and families, or to coordinate one-time educational
events.
Beyond this list of potential partner organizations, as a part of evaluating its
current EE programs, FTC is additionally already in the process of considering expanding
its partner organizations and compiling a list of potential partners.
From those groups that currently have some degree of partnership with FTC, one
theme related to the successes of these relationships emerged. Partners indicated that
FTC was able to provide sufficient financial support to encourage participation in
partnerships. One resident services coordinator at a partner organization that works with
clients in low-income housing commented,
The Friends of Tryon Creek are always very enthusiastic
about partnering with us, and consistently offer
incredible discounts to residents who live in our
affordable housing. They have been a great group to
partner with, and are always excited to bring our kids
into their programs (Anonymous).
Several themes related to challenges of failures of partnerships also emerged
from these interviews. First, not all partnerships were active. For example, one Executive
Director of an organization that staff of FTC identified as a partner stated,
…we‘ve really not done a lot with FTC yet. This isn‘t
meant as a criticism – we have met a few times, and
would like to work together, but other than a small
invasive removal project we haven‘t found the right
project yet. This has happened in other
cases/organizations, and eventually things align…
(Anonymous).
As other organizations indicated a stronger connection to FTC, the overall theme
emerged that, while some of FTC‘s partnerships are well established, partnerships are not
consistently strong with all organizations.
Another theme related to challenges and failures of partnerships, evident from
interviews with partner organizations, was that Latinos are not significantly represented
through the current active partnerships. One youth services coordinator at an organization
72
that is active in partnering with FTC (mostly by referring students for summer camp
scholarships) said,
The Latino population…they actually comprise a fairly
small portion of our population – somewhere between 4
and 5% of our residents identify as Hispanic or
Hispanic-(fill-in-the-blank). (Anonymous)
Interviews with partner organizations also revealed some ideas for future
improvement. All current partners I contacted, even those who did not consider the
partnership active, were interested in opening dialogue into ideas for future projects
together and for reviving old projects that had not been continued. One contact at a
partner organization emphasized an appreciation for FTC‘s outreach and encouraged it to
do more to reach out to organizations working with diverse communities.
One overall theme, common to interviews with EE professionals, state park and
FTC staff, teachers and contacts at partner organizations, was recommendations and ideas
for FTC to improve service to Latino communities. Some of these recommendations
overlapped significantly across groups of interviewees; for example EE professionals,
state park staff, teachers and partner organizations all suggested enhanced outreach.
Many of the recommendations that emerged from interviews also corresponded with
background research related to EE and diverse audiences. For example, while not all EE
professionals or teachers referred to cultural competence by name, many of them referred
to this concept; it is also emphasized in current literature. Other themes that emerged
from the interviews, but that were not directly recommended as ideas, also tie back to the
literature. The combination of all the data collected in the above interviews combined
with the guidance of background research, shaped the recommendations in the following
chapter.
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Chapter 5
Recommendations and Discussion
The findings presented in chapter 4, along with other background research,
endorse a spectrum of recommendations for improving FTC‘s service to Latino
communities. Many of these suggestions would also ameliorate FTC‘s relationship with
diverse audiences in general. The recommendations range from simple adjustments to
more complex and ambitious processes. I have categorized each recommendation as
external (which includes recommendations related to outreach strategies), internal (which
contains recommendations related to organizational/staff/administrative changes),
curricular and pedagogical, and assessment and evaluation. I have also divided the
recommendations into general recommendations, recommendations for school programs,
and recommendations for other partnerships.
5.1 General Recommendations:
Staff and administrative leaders at FTC have demonstrated an interest in reaching
out to Latino communities. Some of FTC‘s current programs and several of staff
members‘ ideas for future programs specifically promise to serve these communities.
However, currently FTC has achieved only moderate success in serving Latino
communities; mostly through its school programs (see Figure 2, p. 3). Already busy staff,
lack of training, and lack of financial resources have all contributed to FTC‘s challenges
in serving Latinos.
Despite these challenges, FTC has the potential to provide the fast-growing
Latino population, and other diverse communities, with an exceptional and distinctive
educational resource. While there are many EE programs in Portland, FTC conducts
particularly high quality family, school, and community programs, as well as
coordinating many volunteer opportunities, in a setting rich in natural and social history.
Although other programs could provide communities with more convenient EE, FTC
programs can introduce communities to ecosystems and issues not available from other
programs. To fully appreciate the unique aspects of FTC‘s programs, an inventory of
Portland area EE programs would be necessary.
An inventory of the region‘s other EE programs would also help FTC allocate its
limited resources efficiently, in the effort to provide effective EE to Latinos in the region.
Still, even with limited information regarding FTC‘s role in the wider community of EE
74
in the region, because the Latino population is high in the area, it makes sense for FTC to
first focus its efforts towards this community (as MERITO did in Monterey). However, it
is important that FTC consider its service to a variety of diverse communities, as many
diverse communities continue to be underserved by EE programs. Many of the following
recommendation can be extrapolated by FTC, or other organizations, to serve as direction
when striving to improve service to other (or multiple) diverse communities. I have
classified all current recommendations drawn from background research and interviews
into the following categories: external, internal, curricular and pedagogical, and
evaluative.
5.1.1 External (Outreach)
Many EE professionals lament the fact that much lip service is paid to diversity
in environmental education, but little has been achieved in actually providing quality EE
services to low-income and minority populations. In light of these warnings, in general, I
propose that FTC expand its outreach efforts to Latino communities. However, I propose
that FTC first carefully consider how prepared it is to provide quality services to these
populations once they have attempted to engage them. Currently, several teachers
indicated that they felt that FTC was not prepared to work with their students (due to
language and cultural barriers). Before FTC makes an effort to bring more Latino
students to the park, I advise that they first focus on recruiting and training staff and
volunteers prepared to work with these audiences.
Still, FTC could significantly increase its relationship with Latino communities
by taking some deliberate steps. Currently, FTC conducts little targeted outreach,
including to Latino communities. This contributes to the fact that few Latinos are
involved with the group as staff, volunteers or audience members. While, below, I
suggest the importance of internally integrating the interests of Latino communities into
FTC through hiring and volunteer appointments, I recommend that FTC also conduct
external research into the needs and interests of Latino communities. I suggest that FTC
organize interviews with representatives of teachers who work with Latino students,
members of Latino communities, Latino community leaders, and Latino teens or adults
who are considering volunteering at the park. Staff members at FTC are already aware of
several teachers who are Latino or who work with predominately Latino youth. Further,
several of the potential partner organizations I mentioned might be interested in sharing
input with FTC, including Open Meadow, Adelante Mujeres, and after-school programs.
75
These interviews could help FTC specifically consider the interests of these groups in the
design and implementation of current and future education programs, and they would
demonstrate its dedication to serving the specific interests of Latino communities.
Some EE professionals indicated that outreach materials are better received if the
targeted audience feels included in them. FTC could consider depicting representatives of
communities it would like to reach in photos on brochures and its webpage in order to
make these groups feel included and invited. This step might also help to counter the
reputation of the park as ―that yuppie park,‖ as one EE educator referred to it. Similarly,
if FTC chooses to develop any bilingual services at the park, it should consider
advertising these services bilingually and distributing these materials to teachers,
community members, and religious groups.
Finally, as FTC‘s connection with Latino communities is weakest with adults and
teens, I recommend that it focus outreach efforts on these populations. One way to reach
teens who might already be interested in volunteering in a setting like Tryon Creek is to
acquire lists of volunteers from other programs, such as the Outdoor School, which has
slightly more diversity amongst its teen volunteers, and to advertise positions to this
group. Some of the potential partners I have listed might also be interested in referring
potential interns or volunteers, especially if FTC is able to advertise and provide
academic credit or financial compensation for these positions.
5.1.2 Internal (Organizational, staff, administrative)
Interviews with EE professionals indicate that, without actually integrating
diverse individuals into all levels of an the interests of diverse groups usually remain
misunderstood and poorly and inconsistently served. Further, including diverse role
models at all levels of an organization encourages diverse youth to enter environmental
fields (Coyle, 2005). In order to become an organization that reliably serves the needs
and interests of Latino communities, FTC must embed those interests in its staff,
volunteers, and board. When positions become vacant, I recommend that FTC consider
hiring new staff members who represent the interests of groups they are hoping to serve.
The inclusion of diverse/Latino individuals on the board of FTC could have
significant impact in the organization‘s relationship with diverse communities. Inclusion
of one or more diverse/Latino board members involved in community services or
education (such as a current or retired school principal or librarian, an executive director
of a local services organization, or a Latino college professor in the field of K-12
76
education) would make a public statement to the community about FTC's ongoing
commitment to diversity. It also could create ongoing connections to Latino
organizations and service-providers, which would open doors to local organizations and
other key leaders in the community. Much of the literature, as well as interviews with EE
professionals, indicates that the inclusion of diverse community members into planning
and leadership roles of an organization plays a significant role in the genuine
incorporation of the needs and interests of diverse communities into that organization
(Lewis and James, 1995).
Further, for volunteer and intern positions, FTC should consider both how to
attract and how to retain these volunteers. For example, as many low-income adults and
teens do not have the resources to commit to unpaid internships or volunteer positions,
FTC should consider developing programs in which individuals could receive some
compensation for these positions, either as financial or school credit.
As current staff, interns, and volunteers do not represent Latino communities, it
is also particularly important to train these individuals in cultural competency related to
working with these populations (Gruenewald and Smith, 2008). Teachers indicated that
they felt that volunteers were particularly unprepared to work with urban, Latino
audiences. While recruiting or training volunteers in Spanish might be one way to better
prepare volunteers and staff to work with Latino audiences, EE professionals implied that
being prepared to engage students biculturally might be more important than being able
to engage students bilingually. Preparing a brief training for staff and volunteers
regarding specific cultural considerations involved in working with urban and Latino
youth could prepare staff and volunteers for more successful and less frustrating
interactions with these groups. EE educators from other organizations, as well as
teachers, might be interested in participating in a training and knowledge-sharing
workshop on this topic.
5.1.3 Curricular and pedagogical
Throughout my interviews I noticed that few EE educators or teachers had
considered pedagogical or curricular approaches particularly appropriate for Latino
audiences. Research indicates that engaging individuals with material and topics most
relevant to them has the greatest effect on boosting environmental literacy (Lewis and
James, 1995). Yet, asking how they specifically attempt to connect with particular
diverse audiences usually elicited furrowed brows and comments such as, ―Oh, that‘s a
77
good question, but I‘d never thought about it.‖ One EE educator, working as an
environmental interpreter, stated that he always attempted to draw in audiences with
stories that connected to their lives, but had never considered altering these stories for
different audiences. He was inspired by the question to consider adapting his
interpretation.
Currently, FTC has done little to consider adapting curricular or pedagogical
methods to be more approachable to Latinos. For example, FTC does not provide any
interpretive materials or services in languages other than English. For many members of
Latino communities, Spanish is a first, or only, language. Offering materials in Spanish
could attract and serve many members of Latino communities. While FTC might not be
able to offer all services bilingually, it may be possible to develop some bilingual
services or materials such as a bilingual self-guided trail brochure and map. While I
recommend developing bilingual materials, I emphasize that developing an atmosphere
and programming that is bicultural is as, or even more important, than developing
bilingual materials.
A place to start is with a general effort to engage the audience by connecting
them to what they are familiar with and concerned about (Lewis and James, 1995). As
suggested by the widespread lack of consideration to this issue, it is difficult for
educators of one ethnicity to determine what is familiar or of concern to an audience of
another ethnicity. Including staff members and volunteers who are from diverse
backgrounds, as well as soliciting information from informed sources are two ways to
gain insight into ways to connect to audiences. One EE educator, for example, indicated
that he engaged migrant workers in water quality issues by connecting them to health
concerns related to agrochemical pollution. He developed this curriculum after asking the
audience directly what concerns they had about water quality.
As suggested above, conducting interviews with Latino community members and
considering diversity when making hiring decisions are two ways FTC could bring issues
of concern to Latinos into its programs.
5.1.4 Assessment and evaluation
One reason many EE professionals maintain that EE programs have failed
diverse communities is that even programs interested in serving these communities fail to
plan and monitor their efforts, end up losing sight of their goals and run out of resources
78
to meet them. As FTC attempts to reach out to Latino communities, it is important that it
both plan future steps and develop a system of evaluating its efforts.
Evaluation will reinforce FTC‘s commitment to diverse audiences. I recommend
that FTC offer a questionnaire to teachers, partner organizations, volunteers, and visitors
about their experiences with FTC. FTC might also want to consider tracking learning
outcomes amongst different groups of students and adults visiting the park. This might be
as simple as asking teachers about the progress of their students, as a part of a teacher
survey. Further, FTC currently does not have a systematic way to keep track of the
demographics of its audiences. A place to start might be to keep track of the
demographics of the recipients of the scholarships it gives to individuals, to schools, and
to partners. Organized records of the recipients of scholarships might help FTC analyze
whom they are serving.
Finally, serving Latino communities with quality EE requires assessing programs
at a regional scale. A regional assessment of how Latino communities are served by EE
programs in the Portland metro region would help to clarify FTC‘s potential role. For
example, it may be more important for FTC to focus on specific Latino communities, or
to focus on serving Latinos with specific services, such as teacher trainings, watershed
education, or programs for pre-schoolers, depending on what other regional organizations
are already doing.
Table 1: General Recommendations
Category
Recommendation
Justification
External
(Outreach)
Conduct interviews
with individuals from
Latino communities,
teachers who work
with Latino students,
and representatives
from other groups FTC
is trying to reach.
Develop bilingual
outreach materials
depicting
representations of
diverse audiences.
Determine the
interests of these
communities and
build genuine
relationships.
79
Demonstrate
inclusiveness to
potential audience.
Table 1 continued:
Share volunteer and
intern lists with other
organizations and
teachers, particularly
Outdoor School.
Provide cultural
Internal
(Organizational/Staff/Administrative) competency training,
including specific skills
and considerations for
working with students
from low-income,
urban and Latino
backgrounds, for
volunteers and staff.
Make an effort to
include members from
diverse communities at
all levels of the
organization including
interns, volunteers,
staff, and board
members, even if this
requires changes such
as paying interns.
Develop bilingual and
Curricular and Pedagogical
bicultural materials.
Assessment and Evaluation
Keep track of the
demographics of its
audience, particularly
scholarship recipients,
and offer a
questionnaire to
families, partner
organizations and
teachers about their
experience with FTC.
80
Inform students and
volunteers who have
showed interest in
similar programs
about opportunities
at FTC, and vice
versa.
Interviews revealed
that teachers did not
feel as though staff
and volunteers were
consistently
prepared to interact
with diverse
populations.
Becoming an
organization that
serves diverse
audiences requires
embedding the
needs and views of
those audiences in
the organization.
Language is not the
only key to
inclusiveness,
although it is a step
towards including
non-English
speakers. Perhaps
even more essential
is the inclusion of
bicultural material
into curriculum and
pedagogy.
As FTC attempts to
reach more diverse
audiences continual
evaluation of its
efforts will help
keep progress on
tract and resources
designated
efficiently.
Table 1 continued:
Assessment and Evaluation
Network with other EE
groups throughout the
region to establish which
organizations are serving
which communities, with
which resources and
services.
Keep track of the
demographics of its
audience, particularly
scholarship recipients,
and offer a questionnaire
to families, partner
organizations and
teachers about their
experiences with FTC.
Network with other EE
groups throughout the
region to establish which
organizations are serving
which communities, with
what resources and
services.
Determine, on a regional
scale, what FTC‘s role
should be in serving
Latino communities.
As FTC attempts to
reach more diverse
audiences, continual
evaluation of its efforts
will help keep progress
on track and resources
designated efficiently.
Determine, on a regional
scale, what FTC‘s role
should be in serving
Latino communities.
5.2 Recommendations for school groups
School groups expose many Latino families to Tryon Creek State Park, who
might not otherwise be aware of FTC‘s programs. FTC could do more to improve the
quality of experience for Latino students visiting the park, however, and to encourage
these same students and their families to return to the park.
5.2.1 External (Outreach)
FTC could expand the exposure of Latino communities to the park through
school programs by providing pre- and post-visit materials to teachers and students.
These materials could advertise other programs at the park, including internship
opportunities, as well as suggest similar resources that families might be interested in
around the Portland area. Beyond encouraging students and families to return to the park,
these materials would also promote making connections to other natural areas, perhaps
closer to students‘ home communities. As one-time visits to natural areas are not
necessarily associated with the development of environmental literacy, these pre- and
post-packets are an essential key to creating an overall valuable experience for students
81
visiting the park. Further, as mentioned above, improvements in environmental literacy
are associated with engaging people with environmental topics of direct interest to them.
Pre- and post-packets that reference topics of specific interest to urban and diverse
communities would show commitment and interest to serving the needs of these
communities and perhaps entice them into becoming more involved in EE programs and
with FTC.
I also recommend that FTC expand its outreach efforts to teachers, particularly to
teachers who work predominately with Latino communities. FTC has several strong
teacher programs, and could perhaps consider developing a training program specifically
for teachers who are unfamiliar with natural areas themselves, or who are working with
students unaccustomed to natural areas. I encourage these teacher trainings to both
encourage teachers to bring their students to Tryon Creek, and to provide information on
other programs teachers can suggest to their students in their home communities. It would
be of benefit to both teachers and FTC if these trainings were to integrate curriculum
related to the specific needs and interests of various diverse communities.
I do not recommend that FTC immediately increase outreach to teachers who
work primarily with Latino students, to bring them to Tryon. Research indicates that
while outreach is important, if programs are not actually prepared to work with diverse
groups, this can breed mistrust or resentment. I recommend that FTC first train its staff
and volunteers to work with diverse audiences, as well as practice some specific
curricular and pedagogical techniques for these audiences, before soliciting many of these
groups to come to its programs.
5.2.2 Internal (Organizational, staff, administrative)
As discussed under general recommendations, FTC currently has few staff
members or volunteers prepared to give instruction in Spanish, or prepared to work with
urban or multicultural youth. Teachers working with Latino students have indicated that
this prevents their students from succeeding in visits at Tryon Creek State Park. Further,
some staff at FTC suggested that working with urban youth could be overwhelming. I
recommend that FTC hire and train staff with these considerations in mind. This training
would both assist staff and volunteers as well as provide a higher quality experience for
students.
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5.2.3 Curricular and pedagogical
Teachers, EE professionals, and published research all suggest several
pedagogical and curricular changes that could improve the effectiveness of school
programs at FTC for Latino youth. First, smaller group sizes would make groups of
students more manageable, as well as allowing students on their first visit to the park to
receive more attention to their individual learning. Second, more hands-on activities
would prevent students from becoming distracted, and would allow them to take
advantage of the rare opportunity to visit an area such as Tryon Creek State Park. Third,
many students have not experienced being in a forested setting and need time to explore
the area, to become accustomed to the atmosphere before they can be productive learners.
Building this into first-time visits could be beneficial to students.
In addition to these recommendations brought to attention by teachers, I
recommend that FTC consider framing the curriculum around questions relevant to
students from urban audiences. Studying a forested setting may immediately seem
unrelated to their lives. However, if the students‘ experience at FTC could be linked back
to their home communities, through contextual questions, the learning could be enhanced
(Clark, 1997). For example, students could be presented with a question such as, ―How
does my habitat affect me?‖ Or, ‗Where does my water come from?‖
Finally, while I have made a few general recommendations for pre- and postpackets, I further recommend a few specific components for pre- and post-visit material.
One, pre-packets should include a homework assignment for students to become familiar
with the rules at the park, so that it will take up less time to clue students into
expectations once they arrive in the area. Second, post-packets should contain a
component that tells students and families about other opportunities around Portland,
suggesting activities with other organizations, and that students and families can do on
their own, so that learning can be extended beyond a one-time visit to the park. Focus
questions, such as those suggested above could also be included in these packets.
5.2.4 Assessment and evaluation
I recommend that FTC develop a questionnaire, to encourage all teachers to offer
feedback after bringing school groups to the park. As FTC begins to track more positive
feedback from teachers who bring Latino students to the park, they will be able to take
the next step to encourage more of these teachers to bring their students to the park.
83
Table 2: Recommendations for school programs:
Category
Recommendation
Justification
External
(Outreach)
Develop pre- and post-visit
packets for school trips.
Include a list to give to
students of what they can
do in their neighborhoods
and how FTC links back to
their homes/lives. Include
in this packet how to come
back to the park with their
families and what
programs and scholarships
are offered.
School programs
introduce diverse
audiences to FTC. These
relationships could be
expanded by devoting
energy to conducting
outreach to families
through these programs.
Internal
(Organizational/Staff/Admini
strative)
Curricular and Pedagogical
Expand and target outreach Teachers who work with
efforts to teachers.
Latino populations may
be hesitant to bring their
students to programs
unless they are made to
feel FTC is specifically
prepared for their
students and field trip
content directly relates to
their learning objectives.
Recruit Spanish language
Spanish-speaking
speakers for staff and
volunteers and staff will
volunteer positions.
take the pressure off of
teachers to serve as
translators.
Train FTC staff and
Students unfamiliar with
volunteers in special
natural areas may need
considerations of working
special guidance to be
with students unfamiliar
successful in their first
with natural environments. FTC programs.
Divide students into
Smaller group sizes in
smaller groups during park field learning settings
visits.
will make groups more
manageable and allow
students more
opportunity to engage in
student-centered
learning.
Develop more hands-on
Keep students focused.
activities.
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Table 2 continued:
Allow students time for
exploration.
Include exercises that
introduce the rules in previsit packets.
Tie learning back to home
community.
Assessment and Evaluation
Develop contextual
questions that relate an
experience with FTC back
to a student‘s home
community.
Develop a questionnaire
for teachers designed to
elicit feedback about their
experiences with FTC.
On students‘ first visits
to a natural area they
might need to simply
explore and get
comfortable with the
surroundings.
Prepare students for
expectations before they
are at the park.
A one-time park visit
will be a more valuable
learning experience if
teachers can extend
learning back to home
communities.
EE has shown to be most
effective when made
relevant to a student‘s
life.
Evaluations will allow
FTC to track success and
follow up on any
persistent challenges.
5.3 Recommendations for FTC’s partnerships
Partnerships are an efficient way of expanding the audience of an organization as
well of introducing diverse perspectives to an organization. EE educators from other
regional organizations particularly mentioned the value of partnering with groups who
work with Latino communities, in order to reach this audience. FTC‘s current
partnerships could be broadened to serve more individuals from Latino communities and
incorporate their specific interests into projects and programs at the park. Individuals
exposed to Tryon Creek State Park through one-time partnership events might consider
returning to the park to visit or to attend FTC programs. As ―partnership‖ implies serving
the needs of both parties, however, FTC must be careful to track its commitment and
success in meeting the needs of partners.
5.3.1 External (Outreach)
Currently, FTC‘s partnerships focus on either organizations that recommend
specific individuals to attend programs with FTC, or organizations interested in hosting
85
events with Tryon Creek. Neither of these partnership efforts currently reaches many
members of Latino communities. I recommend that FTC review all of its current
partnerships, to evaluate the demographics they serve and to determine whether these
partnerships are serving those most in need of its services, within the larger community.
FTC should also consider diversity when considering new partnerships. I have
recommended several organizations for FTC to consider partnering with in the future (see
page 62). I emphasize, however, the importance of maintaining consistent investments in
partnerships, and caution FTC against reaching out to more organizations than they have
time and resources to work with.
5.3.2 Internal (Organizational, staff, administrative)
Building long-term relationships with diverse communities requires commitment
and sustained, person-to-person contact. I recommend that FTC identify someone on staff
to track and maintain partnerships. While volunteers and interns could be designated with
responsibility for doing some outreach and organization with partner groups, a staff
person must consistently oversee the pursuit of FTC‘s partnership goals.
5.3.3 Curricular and pedagogical
Some partner organizations might have ideas for programs or projects that
expand what FTC has done in the past. I suggest that the staff person designated to track
partnerships also engage in conversations with both old and new partners to experiment
with ideas.
5.3.4 Assessment and evaluation
FTC currently does not keep organized records of the numbers and demographics
of individuals it serves through various partnerships. These records could help FTC
determine the success of current partnerships and guide future decisions.
86
Table 3. Recommendations for partnerships
Category
Recommendation
Justification
External (Outreach)
Evaluate current
partnerships.
FTC partnerships
are inconsistent.
While there is some
value in
partnerships for one
time events,
developing
committed
partnerships with
more organizations
could forge stronger
bonds with diverse
communities.
FTC, generally, has
weak partnerships
with groups
connected to Latino
communities.
Create consistency
and ensure
longevity of
partnerships.
Expand ideas about
how to attract and
serve the interests of
partner
organizations.
Keep track of
partners‘ level of
satisfaction with
their relationships
with FTC.
Contact new potential
partners with strong
connection to Latino
communities.
Determine a staff
Internal
(Organizational/Staff/Administrative) person to follow up on
current and future
partnerships.
Consider new
Curricular and Pedagogical
programs or events,
depending on the
interests of partners.
Assessment and Evaluation
Ask partners to fill out
a survey, after
partnering for an event,
or annually.
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Conclusion
Interviews with EE professionals throughout the Pacific Northwest illustrated
that many regional EE organizations are concerned with reaching diverse audiences
through their programs. Little has been done, however, to take stock of how these
programs are serving these communities individually, or on a regional scale. This study
has indicated several ways in which one organization, the Friends of Tryon Creek, could
improve its EE services to a specific community. The research has also implied the
importance of expanding this inquiry, to determine what would be the most efficient and
effective role for FTC in serving diverse audiences, considering other regional resources.
The conclusions of this case study are applicable to many other EE programs
interested in serving diverse communities, principally organizations that have achieved
some degree of success in serving diverse audiences, but which are interested in going
further. Additionally, these conclusions are relevant for other organizations, who like
FTC, have limited time and resources, but would like to efficiently and effectively
address their organization‘s relationship with diverse audiences. The conclusions are also
particularly relevant to those organizations that provide EE to diverse audiences through
school programs, but in general serve a more homogenous audience. Further, although
this case study focused on FTC‘s service to the Latino community, the conclusions are
relevant to organizations interested in focusing on outreach to other specific groups, or to
diverse audiences in general. Choosing one audience helped the research gain focus and
specificity; however, this is not a necessary step for an organization to share.
There are a variety of things FTC is already doing to provide access to effective
EE to diverse communities, including Latino communities. First, there is genuine interest,
at all levels of the organization, particularly in the administration, to address issues of
diversity. Further, FTC has already taken tangible steps to provide assistance to lowincome audiences. FTC already has an established scholarship program, which provided
over $8300 of assistance to individuals and schools in 2008. FTC‘s partnerships also
help bring a diverse constituency to the park and its programs, particularly its
partnerships with organizations that recommend students and families for assistance.
While FTC has met with some success in meeting the needs of diverse audiences through
these efforts, like many similar EE organizations, it continues to provide the most
consistent service to a relatively homogenous audience of White, middle-class or affluent
audiences.
88
Several factors contribute most significantly to FTC‘s challenges in serving
Latino audiences. First, its board, staff, and volunteer base are relatively homogenous; the
needs and interests of Latino communities have not been integrated into the organization,
although many individuals involved in the organization might be interested in serving
diverse audiences. Second, although all teachers interviewed had positive things to say
about bringing their students to FTC programs, some teachers stated that the staff and
volunteers were not prepared to work with their urban or Latino students, perhaps
because volunteers have had limited experience or preparation for working with these
students. Third, although FTC has several successful partnerships, FTC does not have
any active partnerships with predominately Latino groups. Fourth, FTC has conducted
limited outreach to specific communities, and has not made an explicit attempt to make
its outreach materials welcoming to a variety of audiences. Finally, FTC does not have a
strategic, long-term plan to address issues of diversity, and diversity is inconsistently
addressed. For example, although FTC is currently reviewing all of its educational
programming, service to diverse audiences is not an explicit consideration of this
evaluation.
In order to address these challenges and failures I have developed a set of
recommendations that FTC might consider in order to better serve Latino communities.
Many of these recommendations would also help FTC address the diversity of the
organization and its audiences in general. Of all these recommendations, a few stand out
as priorities, considering background research and the comments of other EE educators
interviewed for this study. Further, the following recommendations are ones that I believe
match the limited financial and resource capacities of FTC.
First, and perhaps most imperatively, FTC should develop a long-term plan for
meeting diversity goals related to Latinos and other diverse audiences. This plan should
include a timeline and specific goals (such as ―provide all staff and volunteers with
cultural competence training‖ or ―recruit 25% of interns from diverse communities‖), and
should designate individuals who will be responsible for tracking progress and meeting
specific goals. While it might be efficient to have interns work on projects, such as
interviewing teachers or potential partners, it is imperative that FTC commit to following
through with information interns generate, by integrating it into an established plan. It is
also important for FTC to develop a plan and a timeframe consistent with its resources.
As FTC considers which goals to integrate into its plan, I recommend that it
consider its role in providing service to the Latino community, and other audiences, on a
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regional scale. Since FTC, and most other EE organizations, has limited resources, it is
imperative that it allocate its resources efficiently. It would be wasteful for programs to
expend resources to conduct outreach to communities that are better and more
conveniently served by other programs. For example, it would not be beneficial for FTC
to direct outreach to a school district already effectively served by a similar EE program.
FTC should consider how its unique programs and services fit in to EE on a regional
scale, and which specific audiences might be in need of, or have interest in these
programs.
In order to determine FTC‘s role within EE programs in the region, all EE
programs must organize and share information about the audiences they serve, and the
resources and programs they provide. This networking would serve the purpose not only
of assisting individual programs, such as FTC, with decisions about where to focus
resources efficiently, but would also benefit schools and communities, by creating a
consciously assorted and distributed range of EE opportunities across the region. I found
that teachers lamented the fact that there was not a convenient resource to go to in order
to find appropriate EE opportunities; an online network of EE organizations would
provide this resource. (As mentioned earlier, EEAO theoretically provides a similar
listing, but it has not been posted). Further, networking would help EE organizations
share information, volunteers and staff. In my interviews, I found that some knowledge,
particularly about cultural competence as related to EE, is available but has not been
shared. An Internet forum, in conjunction with a list of organizations and information on
their audiences and services, would be a helpful tool.
Once this network is established, FTC will better be able to determine how
important it is for it to devote resources to serving Latino communities in relation to other
diverse audiences, and what services these communities are in the most need of.
(Considering the demographic increase of Latinos in the area, FTC has already decided it
is a priority to serve Latino audiences; however, it is also important that it consider its
role in serving other audiences, as well, in the future.) Further, a network would allow
FTC to better determine which of its programs to promote as unique programs that
audiences could not find elsewhere. For example, FTC might want to emphasize
succession, watersheds, or human interaction with forest ecosystems — issues
specifically linked to Tryon Creek State Park that might not be available in many other
regional programs.
90
A second recommendation that I emphasize as a priority is that FTC work on
building the diversity of its board, staff and volunteers, in order to integrate diverse
interests into the organization. EE professionals indicated that it can be difficult to recruit
diverse members onto the boards of EE organizations because there simply aren‘t that
many EE professionals with diverse backgrounds. While I encourage FTC to attempt to
diversify its board, I also encourage it to promote environmental careers to diverse young
people. Providing opportunities for diverse young people to engage in EE opportunities,
such as internships, can be critical to encouraging them to enter environmental fields. I
recommend that FTC focus on building the diversity of its young interns through
partnerships and sharing resources, such as contact information, with other EE
organizations. FTC has indicated that it has some resources available to provide financial
compensation for interns. As money can be a barrier to some people who might otherwise
be interested in internships with FTC, this program would be important to set in place.
Third, I recommend that FTC expand its partnerships to include more
organizations who work with Latino audiences, and other diverse communities.
Partnerships are a way to both introduce people to the park, and establish a commitment
to working towards common goals. FTC has an inconsistent level of commitment to its
current partnerships; I recommend that FTC reevaluate this pattern. FTC should
determine which partnerships to focus on in the coming years, including organizations
from the list of potential new partners. While it would still be beneficial to work on a
one-time basis with some organizations, it will do more to develop strong and long
lasting relationships with diverse communities if FTC were to focus its limited resources
on developing a few committed partnerships.
Fourth, I recommend that FTC train staff and volunteers in cultural competence,
so that it can be more prepared to work with diverse audiences. While it is not imperative
for staff or volunteers to be prepared to interact with audiences in Spanish, or other
languages other than English, staff and volunteers will be able to more effectively deliver
EE if they are aware of specific considerations and interests of different audiences.
Brainstorming contextual questions that might help students relate to material presented
at the park could be useful (Clark, 1997).
Fifth, I recommend that FTC consider diverse communities when conducting
outreach. However, I emphasize that building the organization‘s capacity to work with
diverse audiences, such as establishing cultural competency training for staff and
91
volunteers, should be a priority before expanding outreach. Expanding outreach too fast
could risk setting diverse audiences up for ineffective EE experiences.
Although my research enabled me to come up with the above recommendations,
there were a number of limitations of my study. First, I decided to conduct a study of how
the overall organization serves Latino audiences. While this broad scope allowed me to
develop a comprehensive review of all levels of the organization and its many programs,
I was not able to provide as much in-depth information as might be useful. For example, I
was not able to comprehensively interview all teachers who have brought groups to the
park, both from Latino communities, and from more White and affluent schools. This
information might have provided much more specific recommendations to FTC of how
they could improve its school programs. Further, I was unable to follow up with all
potential partners to sketch out specific needs and interests that their groups might have
in working with FTC. Perhaps in the future, interns working with FTC could pursue this
research. However, I emphasize that there should be a permanent point person
designated to follow up with this information as it is gathered.
Another limitation of my study is that I was unable to determine the capacity and
feasibility of implementing one of my key recommendations, that of determining FTC‘s
role in providing EE to diverse audiences on a regional scale. Although interviews
suggested that EE professionals would be interested in developing a resource to facilitate
this on the Internet, I was not able to pursue this idea further. As it is an essential step for
all EE organizations interested in devoting limited resources to serving diverse audiences,
I believe this is a priority for future research. In addition, my study was restricted by my
limited interviews with current and potential Latino audience members. While I
interviewed several Latinos, in all categories of my interviews, I was able to gather only
limited information on the specific needs and interests of this population, with regards to
FTC and EE, in general.
The limitations of my study begin to imply the many questions I still have
regarding this research. For example, ―What are the advantages and disadvantages of
focusing on reaching out to one particular audience (Latinos), to gain focus, instead of
looking at diversity in general?‖ Following up on FTC‘s progress could help answer this
question. Another set of questions I am left with is ―How is the Latino community served
by EE programs in the region, generally? What is lacking? What is already well
provided? Are there some groups within the Latino community who are particularly
underserved?‖ Conducting continued interviews with a variety of stakeholders could help
92
answer these essential questions. In addition, I am left with the question, ―Which other
audiences could FTC improve its service to?‖ Analyzing the region‘s EE service to a
variety of diverse audiences could help answer this question.
Finally, I am left with the question, ―What are the barriers to developing a well
coordinated network of EE programs in the region?‖ Answering this question is essential
to making progress towards diversity goals in EE on a meaningful scale. In an era when
building everyone‘s ecoliteracy carries the responsibility of solving dangerous and
complicated environmental problems, it is essential to determine how to provide access to
effective EE for all, not only within individual organizations, such as FTC, but also on
regional scales.
As pressure from environmental problems continues to increase in the coming
years, we will persist in dependence on environmental education to evade potential
environmental catastrophe. If EE is to be relied on as an effective response to
environmental problems, however, it must reach all audiences. Developing EE
programming that is able to effectively and consistently reach diverse audiences remains
a challenge in the face of pervasive inequalities in society. Providing effective EE for all
requires individuals to reevaluate their relationship with diverse audiences, organizations
to make internal changes, and regions to organize their EE programming. While
demanding and perhaps overwhelming, these changes are all possible, and are essential.
My hope is that the above thesis is able to inspire, encourage, and enable environmental
educators to forge onward in the vital task of providing effective environmental education
for all.
93
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