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EXPLORING THE INTERWOVEN RELATIONSHIP OF ECO-FASHION:
A PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION ASSESSMENT OF THE ORGANIC
COTTON GARMENT
Danielle Pucci
Evergreen State College
A Thesis
Submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Environmental Studies
The Evergreen State College
June 2014
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EXPLORING THE INTERWOVEN RELATIONSHIP OF ECO-FASHION
This Thesis for the Master of Environmental Studies Degree
By
Danielle Pucci
Has been approved for
The Evergreen State College
by
_____________________________
Martha L. Hendersen, PhD
Member of the Faculty
______________________________
Date
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EXPLORING THE INTERWOVEN RELATIONSHIP OF ECO-FASHION
© 2014 by Danielle Pucci. All Rights Reserved
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EXPLORING THE INTERWOVEN RELATIONSHIP OF ECO-FASHION
Abstract
This paper utilizes an interdisciplinary approach in order to identify, analyze and review
relationships and trends in consumer behavior and production processes that occur within the organic
cotton garment industry. Past, present and future trends are analyzed through an economic statistical model
in order to compare protection costs, market structures, and market outlooks for conventional and organic
cotton industries. Consumer demand within the organic cotton garment industry is what guides eco-fashion
purchasing decisions, and the factors that drive these decisions are extrapolated in order to quantify the
information to identify trends and patterns. Additional data is obtained through a consumer behavioral
study consisting of 94 participants that reside in the greater Seattle metropolitan area, provide a closer
assessment of consumer behavior. The data indicates that consumers are willing to pay the industry
standard and more for organic cotton garment and environmental attributes has significant positive
correlations with both store related attributes and garment related attributes.
Keywords: organic cotton, organic cotton garment, eco-fashion
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................................................. V
LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................................... VII
LIST OF TABLES.......................................................................................................................................... IX
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................................ X
CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION ......................................................................................................... 2
1.21Conventional Cotton Production ..................................................................................................... 2
1.22 Organic Cotton Production ............................................................................................................ 3
1.23 Organic Cotton Garment ................................................................................................................ 4
1.24 Consumer Behavior ........................................................................................................................ 6
1.3 OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH ...................................................................................................................... 6
CHAPTER TWO – LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................
2.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................... 8
2.2 ORGANIC COTTON GARMENT ................................................................................................................ 8
2.3 COTTON FARMING PRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 9
2.31 Overview and Defining Cotton Farming .......................................................................................10
2.311 Conventional Cotton .............................................................................................................10
2.312 Organic Cotton......................................................................................................................11
2.32 Environmental Impact ...................................................................................................................13
2.321 Conventional Cotton .............................................................................................................13
2.322 Organic Cotton......................................................................................................................15
2.33 Social Implications of Cotton Farming .........................................................................................16
2.331 Conventional Cotton .............................................................................................................17
2.332 Organic Cotton......................................................................................................................18
2.4 ECONOMICS OF THE COTTON INDUSTRY ...............................................................................................20
2.41 Cotton as a Commodity .................................................................................................................20
2.42 History of the Cotton Market .........................................................................................................21
2.43 The Current Cotton Market ...........................................................................................................22
2.44 Future Cotton Market Outlook ......................................................................................................23
2.5 CONSUMER BEHAVIORS AND THE ORGANIC COTTON MARKET ............................................................24
2.51 Eco-Fashion Consumption ............................................................................................................24
2.52 Fast-Fashion..................................................................................................................................25
2.53 Internal Influences .........................................................................................................................26
2.531 Personality Influences ...........................................................................................................27
2.532 Internal Influencing Factors .................................................................................................28
2.54 External Influences ........................................................................................................................29
2.541 Labeling and Marketing ........................................................................................................29
2.542 Convenience Factors .............................................................................................................30
2.6 METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................................................30
CHAPTER THREE – THE INTERWOVEN ORGANIC COTTON MARKET .....................................
3.1 INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................................................33
3.2 COTTON GARMENTS AND RETAILERS ...................................................................................................33
3.21 Conventional Cotton Garments .....................................................................................................33
3.22 Organic Cotton Garments .............................................................................................................34
3.23 History of the Organic Cotton Garment ........................................................................................34
3.24 Retailers.........................................................................................................................................35
3.25 Supply Chain .................................................................................................................................36
3.3 COTTON PRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................................38
3.31 The Differences in Cotton ..............................................................................................................38
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3.32 Geography as it Pertains to Cotton Farming ................................................................................39
3.33 Geopolitics.....................................................................................................................................45
3.34 Environmental Costs of Production...............................................................................................47
3.341 Conventional Cotton .............................................................................................................47
3.342 Organic Cotton......................................................................................................................54
3.35 Certification ...................................................................................................................................58
3.36 Social Impacts of Cotton Farming .................................................................................................61
3.361 Farmers .................................................................................................................................62
3.362 Women ...................................................................................................................................63
3.363 Community ............................................................................................................................65
3.4 ECONOMIC CONDITION OF COTTON PRODUCTION ................................................................................67
3.41 Cotton as a Commodity .................................................................................................................68
3.42 Market Structure ............................................................................................................................68
3.43 Negative Externalities....................................................................................................................70
3.44 Costs of Inputs Comparison...........................................................................................................71
3.441 Conventional Cotton .............................................................................................................72
3.442 Organic Cotton......................................................................................................................73
3.45 Cost of Organic Cotton Production through the Supply Chain .....................................................77
3.46 Economic Risk ...............................................................................................................................77
3.461 Risk to Farmers .....................................................................................................................77
3.462 Risk and the Supply Chain.....................................................................................................80
3.463 Risk to the Retailer ................................................................................................................81
3.47 Price and Organic Cotton Garments .............................................................................................83
3.48 Growth Analysis of the Organic Cotton Market ............................................................................84
3.5 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR .........................................................................................................................91
3.51 Why We Consume ..........................................................................................................................92
3.52 History of Fashion Consumption ...................................................................................................93
3.53 Current Fashion Consumption Trend ............................................................................................94
3.54 Consumer Influences .....................................................................................................................97
3.541 Internal Influences.................................................................................................................98
3.5411 Committed Consumer ............................................................................................98
3.5412 Health Conscious Consumer .................................................................................98
3.5413 Sympathetic Consumer & Casual Consumer ......................................................103
3.5414 Demographics .....................................................................................................103
3.542 External Influences ..............................................................................................................105
3.5421 Store Related Attributes ......................................................................................106
3.5422 Garment Related Attributes ................................................................................107
3.5423 Environmental Attributes ....................................................................................108
CHAPTER FOUR - METHODS...................................................................................................................
4.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................110
4.2 DESIGNING THE SURVEY ....................................................................................................................110
4.21 Participants .................................................................................................................................112
4.22 Site Description ...........................................................................................................................113
4.23 Measures .....................................................................................................................................114
4.24 Procedures ...................................................................................................................................118
4.25 Hypothesis Development .............................................................................................................119
4.3 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS .....................................................................................................................121
4.31 Common Method Variance ..........................................................................................................123
4.32 Data Analysis...............................................................................................................................124
4.4 DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................................................128
4.41 Comparing Attribute Results .......................................................................................................128
4.411 Store Related Attributes ......................................................................................................128
4.412 Garment Related Attributes .................................................................................................129
4.42 Research Implications .................................................................................................................131
4.43 Limitations of the Survey Data ....................................................................................................134
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4.5 AREAS OF OPPORTUNITY ..................................................................................................................135
4.51 Production ...................................................................................................................................135
4.511 Market Structure .................................................................................................................136
4.512 Governments .......................................................................................................................137
4.513 Production Level Improvements ..........................................................................................138
4.514 Economies of Scale..............................................................................................................140
4.52 Consumption ................................................................................................................................141
4.521 Brand Image ........................................................................................................................141
4.522 Incorporation of Organic Cotton ........................................................................................142
4.523 Pricing of the Organic Cotton Market ................................................................................143
4.524 Marketing and Labeling ......................................................................................................144
4.525 Eco-Fashion Appeal ............................................................................................................145
4.526 Consumer’s Lack of Education ...........................................................................................147
CHAPTER FIVE - CONCLUSION ..............................................................................................................
5.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................150
5.2 COTTON PRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................150
5.3 ECONOMICS ........................................................................................................................................152
5.4 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR .......................................................................................................................153
5.5 SUMMARY ..........................................................................................................................................156
APPENDICES ................................................................................................................................................
ORGANIC COTTON INITIATIVES AND ORGANIZATIONS ...............................................................APPENDIX A
SEATTLE SURVEY ....................................................................................................................... APPENDIX B
GLOSSARY.................................................................................................................................. APPENDIX C
REFERENCES ..............................................................................................................................APPENDIX D
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LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................................
FIGURE 1. SUPPLY CHAIN OF A COTTON GARMENT .....................................................................................22
FIGURE 2. THE SUPPLY CHAIN OF INPUTS IN COTTON GARMENT MANUFACTURING ....................................38
FIGURE 3. ORGANIC AND CONVENTIONAL COTTON FARMING .....................................................................41
FIGURE 4. CONVENTIONAL COTTON PRODUCTION BY COUNTRY ...............................................................43
FIGURE 5. ORGANIC COTTON PRODUCERS ..................................................................................................46
FIGURE 6. WORLD’S COTTON YIELD AND ACREAGE WITH PROJECTION.......................................................51
FIGURE 7. ORGANIC FARMING IMPACTS ON LOCAL BIODIVERSITY ..............................................................59
FIGURE 8. CONVENTIONAL COTTON MARKET STRUCTURE ........................................................................70
FIGURE 9. INPUT COMPARISON IN COTTON PRODUCTION ............................................................................75
FIGURE 10. THE GLOBAL PRODUCTION OF ORGANIC COTTON FROM 2004-2012 .........................................85
FIGURE 11. GLOBAL RETAIL SALES OF ORGANIC COTTON PRODUCTS .........................................................86
FIGURE 12. GLOBAL CONVENTIONAL COTTON PRODUCTION .....................................................................87
FIGURE 13. GLOBAL ORGANIC COTTON PRODUCTION .................................................................................88
FIGURE 14. WORLD COTTON INDICATORS ..................................................................................................89
FIGURE 15. MAP OF DOWNTOWN SEATTLE ...............................................................................................113
FIGURE 16. DEMOGRAPHIC QUESTIONS ....................................................................................................114
FIGURE 17. SEATTLE CONSUMERS RANKING THE IMPORTANCE OF GARMENT FIT .....................................115
FIGURE 18. THE FIVE QUESTIONS ON THE SURVEY WITHIN THE CLOTHING ATTRIBUTES SECTION .............116
FIGURE 19. THE FIVE QUESTIONS ON THE SURVEY WITHIN THE STORE ATTRIBUTES SECTION ...................116
FIGURE 20. SEATTLE CONSUMERS RANKING THE IMPORTANCE OF FIT ......................................................117
FIGURE 21. QUESTIONS WITHIN THE SURVEY RELATING TO ENVIRONMENTAL ATTRIBUTES .....................118
FIGURE 22. PRICE PREMIUM QUESTIONS ..................................................................................................118
FIGURE 23. CORRELATIONS BETWEEN ENVIRONMENTAL & STORE RELATED ATTRIBUTES .......................125
FIGURE 24. CORRELATIONS BETWEEN ENVIRONMENTAL & GARMENT RELATED ATTRIBUTES ..................125
FIGURE 25. GRAPH DEPICTING THE SEATTLE CONSUMER WILLINGNESS TO PAY A PRICE PREMIUM ..........127
FIGURE 26. LEVEL OF IMPORTANCE OF GARMENT RELATED ATTRIBUTES ...............................................129
FIGURE 27. BRAND REPUTATION..............................................................................................................132
FIGURE 28. SEATTLE PARTICIPANT’S LEVEL OF IMPORTANCE TO A GARMENT’S TRENDINESS ...................133
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LIST OF TABLES ..........................................................................................................................................
TABLE 1. QUANTIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF TEXTILE FIBERS ..........................................15
TABLE 2. TOP TEN ORGANIC COTTON BUYERS ..........................................................................................36
TABLE 3. WORLD’S ORGANIC COTTON FIBER PRODUCTION ........................................................................44
TABLE 4. PREVALENT INSECTICIDES USED IN COTTON PRODUCTION .........................................................53
TABLE 5. THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CONVENTIONAL COTTON INPUTS ........................55
TABLE 6. THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ORGANIC COTTON ................................................57
TABLE 7. ADDED COST OF CERTIFICATION .................................................................................................59
TABLE 8. COUNTRIES PRODUCING COTTON WITH CHILD LABOR AND FORCED LABOR ..............................64
TABLE 9. ORGANIC COTTON AS IT DIFFERS FROM CONVENTIONAL COTTON PRODUCTION ..........................74
TABLE 10. SUMMARY OF RELIABILITY STATISTICS AND CRONBACH’S ALPHA SCORE ..............................122
TABLE 11. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS, CORRELATIONS, AND RELIABILITY DATA CONTINGENCIES ..............123
TABLE 12. TOTAL VARIANCE EXPLAINED ................................................................................................124
TABLE 13. CORRELATIONS .......................................................................................................................126
TABLE 14. HYPOTHESIS ............................................................................................................................130
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Acknowledgements
The biggest thank you goes to Ryan Begg for his assistance, encouragement, and support. His
generosity of time and patience allowed me to expand my statistical analysis and understanding of
additional software. His critique helped me sharpen my thoughts and explanation as it lies out within this
paper. Without his help I would not have learned as much nor have such a polished product.
Recognition goes to Josh Gaynon for being my survey assistant during the collection process. His
emotional support and extra hands helped me with the physical collection of survey data.
Regarding statistical assistance, the biggest thank you goes to Robyn Andrusyszyn who helped me
organize my complicated data that few knew how to set up, with her help I saved time and was able to run
my statistics analysis.
Many thank goes to my professor Martha Hendersen Ph.D for her emotional support, guidance,
and critiques. Her encouragement and patience was the most ideal blend of supportive motivation. Her
educational background and her familiarity and eye for structuring a large paper gave my paper dimension
and a clear message throughout.
Finally, I am also truly thankful for the members of the study group, “Shut Up and Write”. My
colleagues that met with me two or more times a week to work on our theses together brought me support,
advice, sympathy, and lasting friendship. A warm thank you to: Carola Tejeda, Jen Runyan, and Jana
Fishbeck.
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Chapter One
1.1 Introduction
Organically produced cotton garments are an emerging and expanding niche
product within the global cotton market. This research addresses questions about
consumer demand for organic cotton garments through an interdisciplinary approach in
order to more carefully predict the future trends of the industry. Previous research
assessing the organic cotton garment industry has utilized a unilateral approach by
isolating and analyzing the individual economical and psychological factors affecting the
market. This research synthesizes previous research and introduces new data through
economic and consumer behavior disciplines. Results from the complied information
predict the strength of the organic cotton garments future. The information obtained,
combined with an advocacy and participatory research, may provide insights needed to
promote change within the industry.
The interwoven relationship of this industry has many points of discussion
adaptable to two or more areas of the research. Therefore, attempting for the most logical
approach begins with addressing the background of the organic cotton garment. From
there, additional information and research will discuss the beginning of the garment
supply chain by examining organic cotton production, while simultaneously comparing
organic cotton farming to conventional cotton farming. Then production costs of farming
cotton will be explored. This economic information and more quantifiable and business
related topic will transcend the discussion into the economic section of the literature,
concluded with the topic that occupies the end of the supply chain, consumption.
Consumer behavior drives the demand, so corresponding with the direction of the supply
chain the research guides the discussion from production to consumption.
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1.2 Production and Consumption
Production and consumption drive the business world, and these two bookends of
the supply chain possess the means for the expansion of the organic cotton garment
industry. “Links between producers and consumers have been a characteristic of organic
agriculture. They are a necessary part of the structure if consumers are to be confident
about the nature of their purchase. In this type of system the consumer is encouraged to
consider not just the quality of the garments, but also the impact of his or her purchasing
decisions over the lives of farming families and environmental conditions in the
production area” (Myers & Stolton, 1999). This market relationship is a multi-disciplined
area of study that contains many components that are interchanging between the topics
discussed.
1.21 Conventional Cotton Production
Conventional cotton production suppresses developing national economies,
pollutes the environment, and encourages discriminatory labor practices. Research on the
organic cotton market indicates potential for economic, social, and environmental
improvements. A transition to the more sustainable cotton farming production method
needs to be encouraged for all the positive outcomes it offers. Through researching the
key drivers of the organic cotton garment industry, the findings can be applied to increase
consumption and therefore escalate the use of organic cotton. Organic cotton garments
account for a large portion of organic cotton market sales and the consumption of these
garments has a direct relationship with production. Identifying the elements that effect
eco-fashion consumer behavior will supply information to build and encourage the
organic cotton garment industry.
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Currently, cotton farming occupies approximately 2.5% of the world's arable land
to produce twenty-five million tons of cotton annually (International Year of Natural
Fires, 2009; Page & Ritchie, 2009; World Wildlife Fund, Cotton: a water wasting crop,
2014). The natural resources, including soil and water, are dependent on chemical
supplementations in order to sustain cotton crops grown through conventional cotton
farming techniques. Conventional cotton farming, overtime, contaminates the water table,
degrades the quality of the soil, and compromises the biodiversity of the ecosystem
(Myers & Stolton, 1999). Conventional cotton production in this research refers to all
cotton production that is anything other than organic cotton farming. Conventional cotton
production capitalizes on the increased revenue earned from reduced wages and relaxed
environmental regulations common in developing countries, perpetuating labor practices,
which promote gender inequality (Better Cotton Initiative, 2012). Every cotton-producing
region within a country contributes to the combined negative impact that the earth
sustains, increasing the rate of atmospheric degradation and contributing to climate
change.
1.22 Organic Cotton Production
Organic cotton production methods that are commonly practiced have a
substantial positive impact affecting the surrounding natural and socio-economical
environments throughout the region. Sustainable farming is “an overall system of farm
management and food production that combines the best environmental practices, a high
level of biodiversity, the preservation of natural resources, the application of high animal
welfare standards and a production method in line with the preference of certain
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consumers for products produced using natural substances and processes” (Council
Regulation (EC), 2007; Meyers & Stolton, 1999).
Organic cotton makes up a mere fraction of the cotton market, and efforts to
transform the farming production to the more organic method have proved to be slow and
challenging. In the 1980’s organic cotton was introduced into the cotton market in efforts
to reduce the negative impact associated with conventional production methods (Myers &
Stolton, 1999). Cotton farming has consistently provided the fiber for the favored fabric
that supplies a majority of the textile industry, and over 99% of that cotton is still
produced through the unsustainable conventional methods (Illge & Preuss, 2011; Sathe,
2010; Yan, Hyllegard, & Blaesi, 2012). With cotton production occurring in poor
developing countries, no public funding is available or even discussed for the
environmental and social impacts resulting from conventional production methods (Page
& Ritchie, 2009).
1.23 Organic Cotton Garment
The garment and textile industry supports over half of the organic cotton market.
Expanding the market of organic cotton products could significantly influence growth of
organic cotton production. “The retail of organic cotton textiles and clothing is
increasingly conforming to regular textile and clothing sales. The involvement of the
large brands and retailers, the number of points of sale is expanding rapidly, thus literally
bringing organic cotton items to consumers” (International Trade Center).
Garment production and consumption is an input intensive industry. Morgan and
Birtwistle (2009) emphasize the correlation between the increase in fashion consumption
to the increase societies disposal rate, and the authors stress the need to curb this careless
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behavior. During garment production alone, 15% of fabric intended for garments is lost
during construction (Rissanen, 2005). Garment production requires high amounts of
energy and water for growing, manufacturing, transportation, and throughout the lifetime
of the garment (National Geographic, 2013; Winkle, 1978). A single conventional cotton
t-shirt uses 2,700 liters of water alone to produce, making it one of the most input
intensive industries (Myers & Stolton, 1999; National Geographic, 2013).
The alternative organic cotton garment has less of an impact on the environment
than all other clothing alternatives and considered to be an organic garment or ecofashion (Laub, 2005; Mirza, 2004). Organic garments are considered, “garments made
with natural materials that are produced using and components that have a low impact on
the environment, offering doubtless benefits not only to the environment but to the
producer’s health and well-being” (Moral Fiber, a beginner’s guide to the UK market,
2005).
After years of insignificant use in the fashion industry, organic cotton garments
became more accessible in the 1990’s. Organic cotton garments became a major part of
the eco-fashion movement. Eco-fashion is, “produced by taking account of its
environmental impacts, which may be made with biodegradable or recycle materials and
environmentally responsible production processes” (Chan & Wong, 2012). The definition
takes in account the impacts to the environment throughout the production process, but
there is no official industry standard that defines this term (Eco-friendly Fashion, 2006;).
The term “Eco-fashion” is found throughout the literature to describe clothing, that is
designed for longevity, produced ethically, and made with less harm to the environment
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(Fletcher, 2008; Joergens, 2006). Organic cotton garments are great example of ecofashion and one of the most commonly found sustainable fashion products.
1.24 Consumer Behavior
Consumer’s purchases of eco-fashion are the demand that fuels the supply of
organic cotton garments. “Consumption is the reason why anything gets produced”
(Heiskanen & Pantzar, 1997). Eco-fashion makes up approximately 1% of the fashion
industry, leaving a large opportunity for growth (Lipson, 2008). Understanding the
decision-making influences the effect consumer behavior is a key element that can be
used to propel the organic cotton industry. Insight in consumer behavior will help the
organic cotton garment industry understand the competition it has with conventional
cotton garments. This research of consumer behavior will offer key information to
influence supply and demand to encourage a positive redistribution of market share.
To better the health of people, the environment, and encourage social change the
fashion industry needs to incorporate and expand their organic cotton buying for the sake
of the environment and their own survival. Education and continual research of consumer
behavior and the organic cotton production process will give the recipe to increase the
expansion of the organic cotton garment industry and shift the market to the organic
alternative.
1.3 Overview of Research
Original data was gathered from a sample population of the Seattle consumer
with a questionnaire designed to find influencing decision-making factors. This survey
was modeled after the questionnaire written in, “The Consumption Side of Sustainable
Fashion Supply Chain: Understanding Fashion Consumer Eco-Fashion Consumption
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Decision” (Chan & Wong, 2012). The survey is designed to focus on factors involving
store characteristics, garment related attributes, and consumers’ concern for the
environmental degradation caused by garment construction.
Combined research and analysis show positive future growth in the organic cotton
garment production and consumption. Economic analysis identifies long-term
profitability in organic cotton production, and that farming production is comparable or
more so than conventional cotton. The organic cotton garment industry is also showing
positive outlooks as large retailers have continual plans to incorporate and increase
organic cotton into garments. Price increases for eco-fashion proves to be a hindrance,
but environmental concern can prove more important to the educated and environmental
concerned audience. With marketing clarity, education, and ethical appreciation for the
environment, the organic cotton garment industry will continue on its path of market
expansion. Research demonstrates that consumer influences have begun to show positive
patterns within the identified significant influencing factors.
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Chapter Two
Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
The following is a compilation review of studies that, together, bring insight into
the future potential trends of the organic cotton garment industry. Retail cotton products
are responsible for the purchase of over half of all cotton produced, researching the
supply and demand of the market will offer the best forecast. Interdisciplinary literature
in both economical and sociological disciplines will provide a broad insight into the
industry. These variables, when observed concurrently over a broad scope, best forecast
the potential trends of the organic cotton garment market.
Initial studies discussed focus on the differences between conventional and
organic cotton farming production methods, with a focus primarily on the different
processes at the growing stage, and the appropriate minimal mention of the differences
that occur throughout the supply chain. A compilation of economic data is used to
compare past market trends and crop comparisons. Consumer behavior psychology
research investigates consumer purchase decision-making in efforts to identify the
variables that have more significance than the environmentally responsible product
options, predominantly a focus on eco-fashion.
2.2 Organic Cotton Garment
The following research exploring consumer behavior looks at studies regarding
eco-fashion and organic cotton garments, since organic cotton garments fall within the
definition of eco-fashion. There are very few studies looking at organic cotton garments
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specifically, so to encompass more information and data a broader scope of eco-fashion
was utilized.
Over half of all products in the textile industry are made out of the biodegradable
cotton fiber (Subramanian et al., 2011). Cotton continues to be highly desirable with
worldwide demand (Textile Exchange, Cotton Briefing, 2011; Myers & Stolton, 1999;
Claudio, 2010; PAN Germany, 2007; Sathe & Crooke, 2010). It is estimated that 40% of
the textile production that directly impacts the environment derives from cotton
production (Textile Exchange, 2010 Global Market Report 2011).
Organically produced cotton garments are categorized under the term eco-fashion,
which describes clothing that is designed for longevity, produced ethically, and with an
emphasis on reduced environmental impacts (Fletcher, 2008; Joergens, 2006). Ecofashion products emphasize the importance of avoiding negative environmental impacts,
but unlike the organic cotton standards, there are no specific standards or guidelines for a
product to be considered as eco-fashion (Eco-friendly Fashion, 2006; Joergens, 2006).
The best description and history of organic cotton garments was provided by the
International Trade Center. Specifically, the literature covers the history and description
of the organic cotton garment from the originating years to the present. From production
to the retail establishment the article describes where these clothes are produced and how
they are priced.
2.3 Cotton Farming Production
Understanding the production side of organic cotton explains the foundation that
the organic cotton garment is built on. Significant literature is used to cover the farming
process and how the two types of cotton compare. Economic information explains the
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structure of the market, the history, and helps to project the future output of production.
Together the background of production and economic tools thoroughly review the supply
side of the organic cotton garment industry.
2.31 Overview of Cotton Farming
Finished conventional and organic cotton garments are indistinguishable to the
human senses; the differences are at the farming level. From the type of cottonseeds used,
farming logistics, and varying inputs, these farming methods have very different impacts
on the environment and the social aspect involved with the production. There are
different cotton farming methods other than organic and conventional cotton, but for this
research these two methods are compared because they represent the opposite sides of the
spectrum. Conventional cotton, for this paper, refers to any cotton farming method that is
not certifiably organic.
2.311 Conventional Cotton
Conventional methods of cotton production are harmful to the environment and
the farming communities that are supported by the crop. “The process of growing
conventional cotton involves the heavy use of chemicals that poison the soil, air and
ground water” (Patagonia, 2006). Conventional methods of farming involve the use of
pesticides, as well as flood irrigation techniques, that waste and pollute local water
supplies, and degrade the vitality of the soil.
Conventional farming methods often rely on genetically modified crops (expect
for Turkey, which prohibits GMO crops) and nitrogen based chemical fertilizers that are
harmful to the environment (Textile Exchange, Turkey, 2013). Emissions from nitrogenbased fertilizers are over 300 times more potent than Carbon Dioxide emissions, and are
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one of the largest contributors to global climate change (Textile Exchange, A Year in
Review, 2013, Cotton Briefing, 2011; Kramer et al., 2006).
The World Wildlife Fund (WWF), one of the largest environmental organizations
of the world, produced several papers and information on their website that focus on the
intensive cotton crop that is destructive to social and natural environments. They focus on
the large amounts water needed to grow cotton and the effects it has on the surrounding
environment. Pesticides Action Network (PAN) offered information on the different
types of chemicals used for conventional cotton farming. The articles published by this
international organization report the immediate and long-term negative health effects to
people and the environment that are caused by conventional cotton farming. With both of
these environmental organizations the farming conventional cotton farming process was
explained through a very blunt and negative description.
The long-term impacts from conventional cotton farming are detrimental to the
fragile ecosystems and developing economies of the farming communities. Long-term
overuse of limited natural resources; pollution of the remaining resources, and lack of
transparency within the supply chain creates a tumultuous and unsustainable future for
the conventional cotton industry and life on Earth.
2.312 Organic Cotton
Organic farming methods are more sustainable and protecting the natural
environmental conditional as well as the farming communities. Organic cotton is grown
with non-genetically modified (GM) seeds and are “grown without synthetic pesticides,
synthetic fertilizers, or chemical additives” (Myers & Stolton, 1999; Organic Exchange,
2007). Organic farming methods reduce nitrogen and carbon emissions by 40-72 %
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through the use of organic fertilizers and eliminating the introduction of synthetic
chemicals into the environment (TextileExchange.org, 2014).
Sustainable farming not only has natural inputs, but also has a different method of
continual care. Crops are rotated during the off-season providing the farmer with
additional income sources, and naturally fertilizing the soil from the new crops that
replenish the soil by adding back the nutrients that the cotton crop depleted. Cottonseeds
are carefully chosen to provide the maximum yield for the farm, based on the regional
climate conditions. Organic farmers also have access to a variety of education resources,
partnering organizations, and agencies willing to assist farmers transitioning from
conventional to organic methods.
Organic Cotton: From Fields to Final Product, written by Dorothy Myers and Sue
Stolton (1999), provides a multitude of organic cotton terms, information about the
organic certification process, and a detailed description of the organic cotton supply
chain. The book provides an excellent explanation of the organic cotton production
process and how it differs from the conventional farming method.
Sam Page and Barbara Ritchie’s report, “A Report on Better Management
Practices in Cotton Production in Brazil, India, Pakistan, Benin, Burkina Faso Cameroon,
Mali, Sengal, & Togo”, undertaken for the Better Cotton Initiative, compares the farming
production process of conventional to organic and within several countries. The authors
combined lots of research, most conducted within the areas of studied, funded by the
regions government. The disadvantages and advantages between the two cotton types are
clearly organized in tables and the inputs used were listed. Page and Ritchie (2009)
describe the geographical characteristics of the growing regions, breaking down soil
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fertility, amount of precipitation, and the geographical coordinates of the region studied.
Detail describing the cotton types grown and the quality the region produces are
explained as well. Overall, this report was one of the most detailed comparisons
throughout all the literature.
Organic cotton farming is different from conventional from the beginning to the
end of the farming process. Seed types, inputs, the most ideal geographical location, and
the knowledge based farming approach are some of the factors important to organic
cotton production. Certification is only granted to organic cotton produced per
requirements throughout every step. Conventional and organic farming processes are
different from beginning to end, but still produce the same quality fiber and yield.
2.32 Environmental Impacts
Cotton farming uses many resources to produce, regardless of the production
method chosen. Cotton needs land and lots water to produce the fiber used for clothes.
Conventional cotton production methods are not sustainable and are more harmful to the
environment. Organic cotton has minimal impacts and does not create the contamination
and pollution that conventional production does.
2.321 Conventional Cotton
Conventional farming methods deplete the limited resources available within
farming communities at an unsustainable rate. The studies reviewed in this paper indicate
that conventional farming methods are detrimental to the environment. These methods
use chemical fertilizers and flood irrigation techniques that pollute the surrounding
environment, reduce biodiversity and the quality of the soil (Myers & Stolton, 1999; Pan
Germany, 2007; Sathe & Crooke, 2010).
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Organizations including the Textile Exchange and Better Cotton Initiative have
spent years studying the effects of conventional cotton farming. The data collected
through their research shows that conventional farming leads to “reduced soil fertility,
salinization, a loss of biodiversity, water pollution, adverse changes in water balance, and
pesticide-related problems including resistance” (Myers & Stolton, 1999; Robinson,
2013). The unsustainable conventional farming method is the reason behind these
organizations efforts to provide data to educate farmers on the best farming methods and
ways to transition a cotton crop into a more holistic farming method.
Studies have provided supporting evidence, through quantitative data analysis,
that conventional methods produce an excessive amount of Green House Gas (GHG)
emissions, as oppose to organic cotton farming uses less energy, water, and emits less
CO2 (Subramamian Senthilkannan Muthu, Li, Hu, & Mok, 2011). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reported that 10-12% of global GHG
emissions are produced from the agricultural sector. Current data forecasts an increase in
these emissions unless the farming methods are drastically altered (Truscott, Denes,
Nagarjan, Tovignan, Lizarraga, & Santos, 2013). Conventional cotton farming releases
4,017 Kilograms (kg) of Carbon Dioxide Equivalent (CO2 Eq.) per hectare (ha) of cotton
lint into atmosphere, which is significantly more than the organic alternative that releases
150 kg CO2 Eq./ha (Soth et al., 2009).
Comparing the difference between the cotton farming production process shows
that conventional cotton adds to climate change and has drastic environmental
degradation qualities; specific categorical examples are given in Table 1. The differences
in cotton when quantified show that conventional cotton is more damaging to the
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environment, has higher emissions, and consumes more energy and resources
(Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu, Li, Hu, & Mok, 2001). An increase in organic
cotton garments will lead to an increase in organic cotton farming production and
transition the fashion industry to be more sustainable and reverse the negative
environmental impacts that conventional farming has caused.
Damage to Human Health
Organic Cotton
0.4
Conventional
Cotton
0.5
2.9
3.2
8.5
9.4
2.5
6
54
60
(Disability-Adjusted Life Years) (scale: 1000:1)
Damage to Ecosystem Quality
(Potentially Disappearing Fraction of Plant Species)
Damage to Resources
(Additional Energy Requirement to Compensate Lower Future Ore Grade)
CO2 Emission
Energy use in Mega Joules per Kilogram
of Fiber
Table 1. Quantification of environmental impact for textile fibers. Source: Subramanian Senthilkannan
Muthu, Li, Hu, & Mok, 2001.
2.322 Organic Cotton
Researchers have been reporting positive findings on soil vitality, increased
regional biodiversity, and maintained quantity of water supply, which shows that organic
cotton has less contributing effects to climate change. Through sustainable farming
methods the risk of insect and disease is reduced and long-term prevention of pests is
achieved through biodiversity and maintaining a healthier ecosystem. The health and
condition of organic soil also prevents long-term soil erosion (Reganold, J. P., Elliott, L.
F., & Unger, Y. L., 1987; Textile Exchange, Cotton Briefing, 2011).
The energy and environmental impacts organic cotton farming has been
quantified and found to be significantly less than conventional organic cotton. Organic
cotton produces 60% less greenhouse gas emissions than conventional cotton and reduces
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energy consumption by 25-50% (Textile Exchange, Cotton briefing, 2011; Textile
Exchange, Snap Shot2014). Organic farming methods reduce carbon emissions by 4072% by using organic fertilizers instead of the synthetic chemicals used with
conventional methods (Textile Exchange, Snap Shot 2014). Organic farms use natural
fertilizers that recycle the nitrogen in the soil reducing the nitrogen rich gas emissions
into the atmosphere, which are three hundred times more potent than carbon dioxide
emissions (Kramer, Regnaold, Glover, Bohannan, & Mooney, 2006; Texitle Exhcnage,
Cotton Briefing, 2011).
Page and Ritchie (2009) produced a report on cotton management practices in
nine countries on behalf of BCI. Their findings reported the conventional cotton farming
impacts that contribute to climate change. The report categorized the different farming
methods and their impacts on the quality of soil, water use, and the overall impact on the
surrounding environment. The expanded documentation of countries and the clearly
identified effects within the type of farming production made this research very valuable.
It is important to understand the market structure and production methods used in
organic cotton production. Organic cotton farming provides a long-term, profitable,
sustainable, and environmentally friendly alternative to conventional cotton production.
To initiate a transition from conventional to organic farming practices, consumers need to
be made aware of the negative effects that are occurring throughout the production of
their garments. Companies also need to embrace changes that will secure long-term
sustainable growth rather than short-term adjustments to maximize profits.
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2.33 Social Implications of Cotton Farming
The nature of conventional cotton farming produces negative social implications
unlike organic cotton production, most significant of the social implications has been
minimal investments in fair treatment of workers in conventional cotton production.
There are approximately twenty million farmers and farmhands that make up the cotton
producers of the world, 220,000 of those were growing organic (Organic Trade
Association, 2014; Textile Exchange, Cotton Briefing, 2011).
2.331 Conventional Cotton
Conventional cotton farming has continually fostering low wages, child labor,
gender discrimination, and hazardous working environments (Page & Ritchie, 2009). The
market structure associated with the conventional farming process attracts populations
with low incomes in developing nations, and creates a high risk situation where the
farmer is always at risk of losing his/her livelihood with the occurrence of a single bad
harvest (Warrick, 2013; Myers & Stolton, 1999).
Women face gender discrimination and disadvantages within conventional cotton
farming production. They are discriminated through variances in wages, limited
ownership rights, and the lack of access to financing (Myers & Stolton, 1999; Sam &
Ritchie, 2009). The chemicals that are used in the harvesting and production of
conventional cotton crops have been linked to complications in pregnancy, which is a
reason that women are excluded from consideration for job positions with a risk of
exposure to these hazardous chemicals.
Ergon Associates Limited was a valuable source of information and resources
providing key insights on the social challenges that may develop during the production of
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cotton. The company published a report based on the audit that was conducted by them
on the implementation of the Better Cotton Initiative’s Better Cotton Fast Track Program.
The material provides an in depth analysis on the safety and health hazards that
conventional cotton farmers are faced with, as well as the positive changes that are
possible for these farmers if they decided to transition to organic production methods.
Studies have highlighted industry issues relating to health, safety, wage disparities, child
labor, forced labor, and gender discrimination practices. A recent study conducted by
Usher et al. provides an in depth objective review of problems, progress, and
improvements of a company transitioning to organic production methods (Usher, Newitt,
& Merouchi, 2013).
Ground water contamination, inhalation of toxic chemicals, and pollution of the
environment affecting local food sources, decreases the overall level of health of the
community exposed to these conditions. The community health issues and added
financial burden from the instability of the market structure with conventional production
methods outline the reasons why conventional cotton farming is not a sustainable, safe, or
responsible system.
2.332 Organic Cotton
The organic cotton industry provides continuous support to farming communities
by developing long-term partnerships with farmers, increased access to education,
financing, and other resources in order to improve the standards and efficiency of the
farm (Textile Exchange, A Year in Review, 2013). Non-governmental organizations
(NGO’s) and organic cotton initiatives partner with organic cotton farmers and contribute
positive numbers that reflect their progress in education, improved labor conditions, and
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reduction in resource usage. Literature on organic cotton production indicates an
improvement in labor standards and benefits for organic cotton farmers.
Organizations such as the Better Cotton Initiative and Textile Exchange aim to
strengthen the organic cotton market in an effort to improve the socio-economic
opportunities that are available to the developing cotton farming communities (Better
Cotton Initiative, Overview of the Better Cotton, 2009; Myers & Stolton, 1999;
Robinson, 2013; Textileexchange.org, 2014). These organizations conduct case studies
with the goal of improving the market, and share the knowledge gained from these
studies with the communities in an effort to create a sustainable and beneficial
partnership (Page & Ritchie, 2009). Farmers are provided with information and
assistance to maximize their success and crop yields. Additionally they are shown how to
rotate crops during the off-season, providing additional revenue, jobs, and available
resources for the local community.
Organizations affiliated with organic farming and fair trade standards provide
financial assistance, education, and continuing research data to farmers while following
international fair trade labor laws. The Textile Exchange and BCI provide oversight to
make sure that participating farmers, and companies, comply with the organic farming
standard framework (Usher et al., 2013). Gender discrimination is significantly reduced
under organic farming standards with these organizations promoting equality in the
workplace and since women do not have the worry of toxic chemical exposure affecting
pregnancy.
Better Cotton Initiative and The Textile Exchange have reported positive results
for farming standards in developing communities that can be attributed to their
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implemented framework (Usher et al., 2013). Any organic cotton initiative partnering
with farmers provide reports, articles, and case studies discussing social benefits of
organic cotton farming improvements and reporting numbers, and outline the common
social issues identified in poor farming communities.
Transparency needs to be established between consumers of cotton garments and
the farming process. Increased consumer awareness could support for organic cotton
products, and would improve the economic support to farmers. Organizations could be
motivated in the cotton industry and conventional cotton farmers to transition to organic
methods (Textile Exchange, A Year in Review, 2013). Increased support for organic
cotton farming will improve the quality of life for the farming communities, and reduce
the rate of emissions, during the production process that effect climate change.
2.4 Economics of the Cotton Garment Industry
Organic cotton farming production is directly connected to the garment industry.
To examine the future strength of the organic cotton garment industry the organic cotton
market needs to be analyzed. Past production trends, anomalies, and future forecasts help
reduce risk and predict price trend and availability of organic cotton garments.
2.41 Cotton as a Commodity
The organic cotton industry is considered a niche-market consisting of slightly
more than 1% of the total cotton market (Kogg, 2003; Mohammadioun, Gallaway, &
Apodaca, 1994; Ton, 1999). A niche market good is a specialty product within a larger
market that is directed at a targeted demographic or marketed group (Myers & Stolton,
1999). Organic cotton farmers have an option to insure their crop for an additional price
premium that compensates farmers in cases of crop failure at a rate above the value of
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conventional cotton. Price premium is reflected in the final price of the organic cotton
garment and helps to reduce pressures associated with production that frequently occur in
most geographical locations (OTA, 2012).
The Textile Exchange is an international non-profit organization that compiles
global data pertaining to organic cotton production and releases annual reports breaking
down the data by country and year. Data is collected from research done by multi-stake
holder international organizations and initiatives with the shared goal of expanding the
organic cotton market. These organizations, initiatives, and agencies provide access to
research, financial support, education, and a way for farmers and potential buyers to
connect. The 2011 Cotton Briefing, released by the Textile Exchange, provides data for
organic cotton production that supports the premise that farmers transitioning from
conventional to organic methods gain economic security and long-term sustainability in
the industry.
2.42 History of the Cotton Market
Over two centuries ago the mechanized cotton industry was one of four key
sectors responsible for the industrial revolution (the other three being iron founding,
steam power, and cheap labor). In the late 1980’s, the first experimental commercial crop
of organic cotton was grown in Turkey, which introduced a new revolutionary and
sustainable method of commercial cotton farming (Myers & Stolton, 1999). Sathe and
Crooke conducted a case study that looked at the introduction of organic cotton onto the
market and how it developed. Sathe and Crooke (2010) break down the sectors of the
market into participants of the multi-investor system; the stages of the supply chain, and
the individual parties involved that provides an accurate and detailed depiction of the
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various processes. The production process of a cotton garment goes though many
processes and is transported several times before reaching the consumer, as seen in
Figure 1.
Figure 1. Supply chain of a cotton garment. The illustration is a visual of the production process that
cotton goes through in sequential order, starting at the growing process and ending with the consumer.
Source: http://www.cottonconnect.org
2.43 The Current Cotton Market
Organic cotton is a relatively new product in the cotton market, and is still in the
development stages. Understanding the production processes, previous successes and
failures, and how the industry is designed will help to improve the outlook of this
commodity. Organic cotton is in a position to have continuous long-term growth in the
cotton market.
Most available data about organic cotton is derived from the reports written by
BCI or Textile Exchange. Both of these organizations publish their research and findings
on forums and reports made available to the public (Paige & Ritchie, 2009). These
organizations have conducted extensive research globally on both conventional and
organic cotton farming, and are considered the leading source for accurate and up to date
data. A majority of the data reviewed and analyzed in this paper is information that
originated from annual reports, audits, and case studies made available by these
organizations.
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There are numerous initial economic benefits for cotton farmers that want to
transition their farm into the organic alternative. The initial costs to farmers are reduced
due to the savings gained from not having to purchase chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
Over the course of the first harvest additional savings will be gained from the reduction
of resources consumed, such as water and additional chemical additives (Page & Ritchie,
2009). As more data is published about the economic feasibility of organic farming, the
numbers of farms making the transition also rises.
Total cost of inputs to the cotton farmer is a significant economic measure; which
emphasizes the potential profitability and viability of the organic cotton market. Organic
cotton is grown with less chemical inputs, but more labor is needed to monitor the crop
for potential infestation and diseases, as well as weeding and harvesting the crop (Sathe
& Crooke, 2010). When comparing the data recorded for the costs and revenue from
conventional and organic cotton farms the organic farms have a reduced overall cost and
increased revenue.
2.44 Future Cotton Market Outlook
To produce the comparison graph of conventional and organic cotton markets and
projecting future trends, data was used from two different sources. The Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations database was used to gather the numbers
of total global cotton and total global organic cotton production and Textile Exchange
produced the numbers for the organic cotton global production. These two suppliers of
data allowed for a production comparison analysis of the output supply within the
garment industry.
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To predict the future viability of the industry, current and historical trends are
reviewed and analyzed in relation to the total cotton production trends. Weather
conditions, political and economic policy changes, and other regional abnormalities are
considered when reviewing the data in order to account for any anomalies. When
production levels are increased, retailers become more willing to incorporate the organic
products into their stores, because there is a reduced risk of supply shortages that could
occur from crop failures.
2.5 Consumer Behaviors and the Organic Cotton Garment
A majority of the consumer behavior literature is made up of studies researching
different variables that consumers entertain when purchasing eco-fashion. These authors
offer knowledge and data that relate to the nature of organic consumer demand. The
studies explore the relationship between consumers and their willingness to support
environmental justice through purchasing organic products. The research is compiled to
further investigate reasons for organic cotton garment purchases, and asks when
consumers are buying the organic cotton garment does it imply their support for a
different production model.
Clothing purchases are different from other consumer products, because fashion
items can be considered part of the consumer’s identity. According to Niimimaki (2010),
when an environmental friendly alternative product is introduced to the consumer,
consumer personality characteristics (internal) and convenience (external) influence the
purchasing decisions, because we express our identities through fashion. Morgan and
Birtwistle (2009) identify a link between increased garment purchases and a rise in the
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disposable habits of society. They conclude that efforts need to be made to reduce this
careless behavior.
2.51 How Consumers Consume Clothing
Consumers have increased their clothing consumption in recent years with the
introduction of fast-fashion. Fast-fashion is defined as apparel that represents the most
current trends, is produced at a fast rate, and sold at a low price. “A recent study by the
Environment Select Committee revealed that the proportion of textile waste being
discarded at council refuse collection points in the past five years has increased from 7%
to 30% by weight ” (Morgan & Birtwisle, 2009; Poulter, 2008). There is now a need to
make a shift towards a more sustainable textile industry, one that reduces waste and harm
to the environment. Synthetic materials are not the answer; they are not biodegradable or
recyclable and are increasingly being tossed in to the landfills (Morgan, 2009).
The buying behavior of organic garments dictates the future of the organic cotton
market. Consumers, predominately in developing nations, have considerably shortened
the life cycle of their wardrobe in recent years (Claudio, 2007). Consumer disposable
clothing mindset encourages unsustainable farming in order to provide the cheap prices
needed to sell poor quality garments that can be thrown away shortly after they are
purchased (Morgan & Birtwistle, 2009). “However, possessing “consumer
sophistication” is no guarantee that consumer actual participate in wide or ethical buying
practices” (Titus & Bradford, 1996).
2.52 Eco-Fashion Consumption
It is important to understand what motivates the consumer to purchase ecofashion products in order to predict future trends in the market, as well as how to develop
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marketing strategies to maximize consumer purchases. There is currently very little
research on consumer behavior relating to eco-fashion purchases (Niinimaki, 2010).
Understanding the previous mentioned will assist with the future outlook of the organic
cotton market.
The consumption of clothing apparel is considered as any and “all activities
related to acquiring, storing, using, maintaining, and discarding apparel items” (Winakor,
1969). Environmental consumption refers to any topic regarding the environment and
ecosystem, such as climate change, the disposal of toxic wastes, species conservation,
and water quality (Kim & Damhorst, 1998, Lin, 2008). The reactions of consumers when
faced with issues regarding environmental and apparel consumption is what is measured
in the studies reviewed for this paper.
Stephens (1985) wrote the first paper exploring consumer behavior in the apparel
industry, explaining environmentally “responsible clothing” consumption attitudes,
clothing acquisitions, and disposal. “Responsible clothing” can be identified with the
term eco-fashion; it is a garment that has minimal environmental impacts during the
production process. When a consumer makes an ecological decision while purchasing a
clothing product, it means that they made a purchasing decision based on the avoidance
of a product that is harmful to the environment (Roberts & Bacon, 1997). Prior to 1990
there was a limited amount of research conducted regarding consumer buying behavior
(Hunt & Vitell, 1992; Niiminimaki, 2010), since then there have been numerous studies,
but few that focus specifically on eco-fashion purchases.
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2.53 Internal Influencing Factors
Internal influences for consumers are personality characteristics and key
demographics that the consumer identifies with. “Clothing and fashion consumption
converge strongly with the construction of self and one’s own individuality, in order to
express deeply one’s own personality, such as ethical values and aesthetic preference”
(Niinimaki, 2010). Internal influences are equally involved in the consumer’s decisionmaking process as external influences.
The studies that have been conducted regarding consumer purchasing behavior
with eco-fashion products have had mixed results, lacked specificity, and have not
identified a standard system to measure consumer motivations. The most common
conclusion from these studies has made the claim that environmental issues do not
outweigh the other factors considered when making a purchase (Cotton Incorporated,
2008; Niinimaki 2010). Research continually demonstrates that, “being fashionable and
environmentally concerned appears to be in direct conflict” (Solomon & Rabolt, 2004).
For this reason alone more research should be conducted to find out how consumers
weigh the influencing external factors against each other when purchasing an apparel
item.
2.531 Personality Influences
Individual consumer personality types are one of the least consistent factors
identified throughout the compilation of studies. Each report developed unique labels and
categories without any standard identifiable norm. The most effective personality labels
used in these studies that could quickly and easily observed, identify and categorize
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personality types in the research study published by Myers and Stolton. This study
identified four types of eco-fashion consumer.
Myers and Solomon (1999) developed a standard to measure four different
personality types in consumers, and how these personality types typically interact when
presented with the option to purchase an eco-fashion product. Four types of personalities
from most likely to buy to least are the committed consumer, health conscious consumer,
sympathetic consumer, and the casual consumer (Myers & Stolton, 1999). These studies
provided a clear and concise way to measure and identify personality types in
conjunction with additional variables.
Niinimaki (2010) conducted a study summarizing research on the personality
traits of consumers that dictate their decisions regarding eco-fashion purchases.
Niinimaki, Solomon and Robolt, (2004) all focus their research on consumer ethics,
which is an area difficult to quantify into measurable data. Most of the research identifies
a correlation between the level of ethical commitment of the consumer and their
willingness to sacrifice convenience. The higher the level of ethical commitment
portrayed by the consumer, the more likely they will base their purchasing decisions on
their values compared to the average consumer (Niinimaki, 2010).
2.532 Demographics
James A. Roberts (1996) conducted a research study that showed a significant
relationship between consumer income levels and ethical purchase decisions based on a
regression analysis of the data collected. These results were in contrast to previous
research that concluded that there was no relationship between these demographics
(Roberts, 1996).
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Other studies reported that genders also played a role in consumer purchase
decisions, showing that women were more likely to make a decision based on ethics and
the environment than men (Eagly’s, 1987; Roberts, 1996; Roper, 1992). The results from
these studies showed that both men and women will purchase environmentally friendly
garments, but women will purchase the garments more often based on their principles,
and men will purchase the garments more often based on the price. Demographics
including income, age, education, and gender have shown some regular findings
regarding consumer behavior, but the results are not consistent.
2.54 External Influencing Factors
Consumers are influenced by external factors such as store related attributes, the
physical qualities of the garment, convenience to the consumer, and marketing. These
factors may influence the consumer decision consciously or subconsciously, and the most
common external factor that influences consumers, according to Carrigan and Attala, are
factors of convenience. Store and product attributes have also shown to have a significant
influence on consumers concurrently with the convenience to the consumer. Some
common convenience factors are price, quality, value, comfort, and consumer
compatibility (Carrigan & Attalla, 2001; Thogersen, 1999).
2.541 Labeling and Marketing
Consumer education and marketing strategies are external influences that have
shown to be significant factors motivating consumers to make eco-fashion purchases.
Advertising in the following literature refers “to the public, by any means other than a
label, that is intended or is likely to influence and shape attitude, beliefs and behaviors in
order to promote directly or indirectly the sale of organic products” (Council Regulation
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(EC), 2007). Many consumers do not have a clear understanding of some common ecofashion terms adding to the confusion and lack of consumer confidence (i.e. green
apparel, green fashion, and organic cotton) (Solomon & Rabolt, 2004). Consumers
identify the term organic as something that relates to food, not with their clothing.
When Patagonia, a large outdoor clothing retailer, conducted a survey about
organic cotton they received responses corroborating other research that concluded
consumers do not understand eco-fashion terms. One response Patagonia received was,
“Why organic cotton? I don’t eat my jeans!” (Sathe & Crooke, 2010). The absence of
detrimental effects a garment has directly to the body has caused the means of the organic
properties to be discounted by the consumer (Beard, 2008). Clear labeling, marketing
strategies and ongoing consumer education will continue to improve consumer
understanding regarding the sustainable efforts behind the organic cotton market.
2.542 Convenience Factors
The research showed that consumers would initially look at the price of the
garment and its design (Wilson, 2004). Although environmental issues have shown to
influence purchasing decisions, convenience factors predominantly take precedence with
consumers when they are making their purchase decisions (Butler & Francis, 1997). Price
has consistently shown to be the most influential factor for consumers based on existing
research (Thogersen, 1999). The majority of consumers display positive attitudes
regarding eco-fashion products, but their purchasing decisions usually do not reflect their
attitude, instead consumers report that the price of the eco-fashion garment discourages
them (Cotton Incorporated, 1999; Cotton Incorporated, 2008; Eckman, Damhorst, &
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Kadolph 1990; Meyer, 2001; Garlick & Langley, 2007; Iwanow, McEachern, & Jeffrey,
2005).
2.6 Methodology
The most significant piece of literature that was used as a model for the survey
created for this report was a consumer behavior paper on consumer’s and eco-fashion.
Ting-yan Chan and Christina W.Y. Wong (2012) conducted a multivariate study
consisting of key consumer demographics and their relationship with various external
factors regarding eco-fashion purchases. The goal of the study was to improve the
understanding of consumer eco-fashion purchase decisions, specifically focusing on
ethical decision making and marketing influences (Chan & Wong, 2012).
A pilot study conducted for this thesis adds consumer data collected in Seattle,
Washington. Previous studies have focused on populations of large international cities,
such as Hong Kong and London, or focused on key demographic groups. Residents of
Seattle were identified as a progressive population with an above average income.
“Seattle median household income was $52,048 in 2011, about 15% higher than the US
median income of $45,000. Seven of eight population groups in Seattle have higher
median incomes than their national counterparts” (City of Seattle Office of Economic
Development (2013). Seattle is known as a population that supports the organic food
movement, and there have been studies showing a positive relationship between the
purchase of organic foods and whether that person would purchase organic clothing
(Beth, 2004; Ochoa, 2011; Wilson, 2004). This sample population group provides an
ideal group for data collection to verify the previously stated relationships between
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income and ethical purchasing behavior and is ideal for organic cotton companies to
target potential advertising and marketing campaigns to increase sales.
The organic cotton production and garment industry are recent emerging markets
that are underdeveloped and under-researched. Lack of research expands across seed
development, the growing process, and eco-fashion behavior. Research on the production
side lacks funding, and even when case studies are done, the resulting conclusions most
likely would be privately funded and go unpublished (Page & Ritchie, 2009). The
demand side of the organic cotton industry is a newer market as well as complicated to
research. The continuation and improvement of research in this industry is needed to
provide stronger evidence and stimulate change.
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Chapter Three
The Interwoven Organic Cotton Garment
3.1 Introduction
This chapter outlines socio-economic differences, physical geography of cotton
production, environmental costs associated with conventional cotton production, the
alternative costs of organic production, consumer decision-making, and efforts to expand
the organic cotton production and consumption. The following information offers a better
understanding and background of the organic cotton industry and its benefits over
conventional cotton. Differences in cotton production knowledge, social costs, and the
market element breakdown explores the potential need for the organic alternative market
expansion. Consumer behavior research offers a better understanding of eco-fashion
drivers. Consumers drive the supply and demand of the organic cotton garment industry,
and extracting the significant influences will help build business strategies that will
encourage the growth of the organic cotton garment industry.
3.2 Cotton Garments and Retailers
A finished organic cotton garment is indistinguishable from a conventional
garment (Casadesus-Masanell, et al., 2009). Garments can also be constructed up of a
blend of organic and conventional cotton and can be labeled and certified accordingly.
This following research will focus on the garment that is a 100% produced with certified
organic cotton.
3.21 Conventional Cotton Garments
The conventional production methods used to produce cotton garments require a
significant amount of energy and water throughout the stages of the supply chain
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(National Geographic, 2013; Winkle, 1978). “It can take more than 20,000 liters of water
to produce 1kg of cotton; equivalent to a single T-shirt and pair of jeans” (Pesticide
Action Network, 2014). One conventionally produced cotton t-shirt requires 2,700 liters
of water to produce, and that along with the energy needed during manufacturing,
transportation, and production makes this product one of the most input intensive goods
available to consumers (Myers & Stolton, 1999; National Geographic, 2013).
3.22 Organic Cotton Garments
Organic cotton garments have a lower impact on the environment during
production than other clothing alternatives (Laub, 2005; Mirza, 2004). Organic garments
are considered, “garments made with natural materials that are produced using
components that have a low impact on the environment, offering doubtless benefits not
only to the environment but to the producer’s health and well-being” (Moral Fiber, a
beginner’s guide to the UK market, 2005). Eco-fashion is often marketed and found
predominately in the United States and Europe (Chen & Wei, 2012).
If additional organic material is used such as, buttons, clasps, and thread, there is
a potential for an increase in production cost. The dyeing process is also an area of
diversification. The methods for dying the cotton fiber also vary between conventional
and organic methods. Conventional dyes use chemicals that, organic, or the fiber can be
left in its natural state (Solomon & Rabolt, 2004). If other organic cotton garments use
naturally pigmented dyes then “resources could be saved and levels of dye in effluent
reduced” (Myers & Stolton, 1999).
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3.23 History of the Organic Cotton Garment
Certified organic clothes were first sold in the early 1990’s in all natural and
health food stores, the products offered were limited in colors and style and capitalized
on the environmental and health benefits. A few companies did begin to market organic
cotton in more stylish trends and natural colors until the 1994 until they were unable to
complete with the emerging fashion trend using bright neon dyed synthetic fabrics
(International Trade Center).
Since the early twenty-first century organic cotton has been re-introduced by
retailers. For environmental reasons, ethical reasons, and out of necessity eco-fashion was
reintroduced and slowly establishing itself avoiding the fad image it once took. Some of
the largest clothing retailers in the world are now incorporating the sustainable fiber and
have voiced their plan for future eco-fashion expansion. Companies, like Patagonia, have
sustained themselves when converting to only organic cotton clothing and have positive
numbers to report backing up their success.
3.24 Retailers
The first big retail companies to design and sell organic cotton garments was
Hennes & Martiz (H & M), Patagonia, and Esprit in the early ninety’s. By 1994, Gap
Inc., Esprit, and Levi’s had experimented with the eco-friendly fiber, but pulled out of the
organic industry as the demand for organic fiber dropped because of the fashion shift.
During this time European companies, OTTO, Hess Natur, and Coop, were the
companies left supporting the organic cotton market.
The production of organic cotton is predominately managed by two companies,
Mavideniz in Eastern Turkey and Eco-Farms in Maharashtra, India. This small-enclosed
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distribution channel sells 50-60% of their production to twenty-five of the largest organic
cotton consuming retailers (Hulm, 2008). Retailers such as Nike, Patagonia, Hess Natur,
OTTO, and Coop have been credited for shaping the organic cotton market, which shows
that this developing niche still relies on the big brand retailers (International Trade
Center).
More recently, companies have increased their organic cotton use through
conversion programs that uses the blending of sustainable fiber with other material to
incorporate organic cotton while making their products affordable. The demand for
organic cotton garments has created a market that now offers a selection of eco-fashion
garments, which are sold from specialized boutiques, high-end department stores, and
electronic commerce (International Trade Center). Table 2 shows the leading companies
of the organic cotton movement and the locations of sales.
Table 2. Top ten organic cotton retailers. Source: Textile Exchange, 2010; Global Report, 2011.
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3.25 Supply Chain
The production of cotton garments is a complex decentralized multi-stage system
starting at the cotton farm, and ending in retail stores. The supply chain of a garment, as
seen in Figure 2, consumes energy, water, oil, and chemicals throughout the process as it
Figure 2. The supply chain of inputs in cotton garment manufacturing. Source: Rutgers University
Libraries, 2014.
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simultaneously disrupts and pollutes the land. Once the cotton is harvested, the raw
material is transported to a ginning factory where the fiber is separated and cleaned. This
cleaned fiber is then transported to a weaving mill where it is transformed into cloth that
is ready to be dyed and finished. These factories and mills process both organic and
conventional crops, and must be separated throughout these stages to preserve the purity
of the organic cotton. Each machine must also be thoroughly cleaned prior to introducing
the organic cotton. From this point, the cotton is transported to factories where it is
assembled into the end product and shipped to the retail stores.
Organic cotton, although challenged by the cost of cleaning the machines and the
lack of large quantity cost savings does have an advantage. Organizations and initiatives
like, The Better Cotton Initiative, offer informative tools that look at the supply chain to
better assist in the reduction of waste and improve of the system used by small business
buying organic cotton from farmers. Organizations dedicated to increasing the organic
cotton market continually make an effort to reduce costs to farmers on an individual level
(Textile Exchange, Cotton Briefing, 2011).
3.3 Cotton Production
Commonly thought to be environmentally friendly, cotton harvested and refined
through conventional methods is one of the most input-intensive systems in the world
(Myers & Stolton, 1999). Conventional cotton production methods can be just as harmful
to the environment as the comparable synthetic petroleum based products (Patagonia,
2006). This contradictory concept of cotton production is due to the lack of transparency
through the industry and consumer knowledge of production methods. Both descriptions
of cotton are true depending on how it was harvested and refined.
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3.31 Differences in Cotton Production
Cotton is produced through conventional and organic methods, providing the
same end product with drastically different harvesting and production methods
(Casadesus-Masanell, Crooke, Reinhardt, & Vasishth, 2009). The majority of cotton is
produced through the high input intensive conventional methods responsible for its
nickname “the dirtiest crop” (Illge & Preuss, 2012; Myers & Stolton, 1999; Winker,
1978). Organic cotton farming is produced through small-scale farms that use GMO free
seeds and practice sustainable methods that do not involve chemicals, full irrigation
systems, and dependent on fossil fuels (Textile Exchange, Cotton Briefings, 2011).
“Organic cotton production is knowledge-intensive; it combines tradition, innovation and
science to benefit the shared environment and promote fair relationships and a good
quality of life for all involved” (Textile Exchange, Cotton Briefing, 2011). The farming,
harvesting, and production of cotton are what differentiate organic from conventional
cotton (Casey, 2007).
The final products are comparable and indistinguishable at the macroscopic level
(Casadesus-Masanell et al., 2009). The quality of organic cotton, similar to conventional
cotton varies greatly based on the seed, growing conditions, and the region that it was
grown in (Textile Exchange, Cotton Briefing, 2011). Samples taken from both types of
cotton have comparable fiber length, strength, and micronaire (Myers & Stolton, 1999).
Conventional cotton production does not produce a higher fiber yield. Preliminary
results from the Center of Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems at the University
of California found no significant differences between the yields of conventional and
organic cotton (Myers & Stolton, 1999). Evidence has been actually found that mature
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organic farms can have higher yields than conventional cotton crops (Textile Exchange,
Cotton Briefing, 2011). As organic cotton crops mature more yields are produced. In the
US from 2011 to 2012 acres of planted cotton decreased, but the harvest actually
increased by 60% (Jagiello, 2014). This is most likely due to established organic fields,
weather, and experienced organic farmers.
Organic farming practices provide a product that is environmentally friendly and
sustainable, and improves the community, local economy, and quality of life for the
farmer (Myers & Stolton, 1999; Organic Cotton, 2013). This method of production has
minimal impact than the alternative conventional method. Choosing organically produced
cotton garments create a different set of sustainable goods that improve social conditions
for both producers and consumers.
3.32 Geography as it Pertains to Cotton Farming
Cotton’s adaptability makes it a viable crop for most countries and both organic
and conventional cotton are grown in most parts of the world, as seen in Figure 3. A
majority of cotton (approximately 99%) is produced in developing countries on smallscale farms that produce 75% of the global cotton output (Organic Trade Association,
2014). The physical terrain and geographical features dictate the amount of resources
needed, the type of cottonseed used, and how much cotton can be yielded in a given
harvest. The location and government in the region also affects the costs throughout the
production process. It is important to understand how the regional climate conditions and
geopolitical variations impact and shape the conventional cotton market.
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Figure 3. Organic and conventional cotton farming production. Source: Pesticide Action Network,
2014.
Cotton grows best in hot dry climates, but produces the most yields when the
plant is watered during specific times throughout the season (Truscott et al., 2013). The
cotton plant produces its highest yields in fertile soil that is rich with minerals, moisture,
and organic matter. The plant requires nitrogen, sulfur, molybdenum, and manganese to
grow and, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, boron, and zinc to flower and
produce fiber (Gibbs, Dufour, & Guerena, 2005). Choosing the appropriate cottonseed is
the most important factor to maximize a cotton farms yield from a harvest. If the correct
seed is used, based on the climate and soil conditions, there will be a reduced chance of
pest infestations, more efficient watering systems that utilize the regions precipitation
trends. The farms will be able to produce the best fiber quality and quantities by choosing
a plant that grows during the specific regional harvest times (Page & Ritchie, 2009).
The majority of cotton farming and production occurs in developing regions,
providing an end product for consumers in wealthy developed nations. Cotton is
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produced throughout the world in both small-scale and large commercial farms. In 2001,
the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization estimated that there were over
one hundred million rural households involved in cotton farming and production globally
(Page & Ritchie, 2009). Commercial cotton farming is embedded in both developed and
developing global economies, were a more mechanized process is used (Myers & Stolton,
1999; Textile Exchange, Cotton Briefing, 2011).
Conventional cotton production can be developed on small-scale farms or on a
commercial scale. Farming production occurs in over a hundred countries covering six
continents (Warrick, 2013). As seen in Figure 4, China and India are responsible for
Figure 4. Conventional cotton global production by country. Source: Truscott, 2013.
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growing almost half of the conventional cotton of the world (Meyer & McDonald, 2014).
A regions climate can depict the quality and yield, for example, Turkey is known for its
quality cotton fiber and highest cotton yields globally (Textile Exchange, Turkey, 2013).
Organic cotton, desired for its fiber characteristics and its sustainable production
method, is farmed globally. Organic cotton farms started in the United States and Turkey
in the early 1990’s, and now it is being grown in over twenty-two countries, as seen in
Table 3 (Casabona, 2010; Organic Trade Association, 2014; International Trade Center).
Table 3. World’s organic cotton fiber production. These are the top organic cotton producing countries
as of 2011-2012. Source: Textile Exchange, A Year in Review, 2013.
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Today, the majority of organic crops are produced in China, India, and Turkey; with
India being the largest producer of organic cotton (Illge & Preuss, 2012; Truscott, 2013).
Harvested cotton is then transported to the spinning mills for ginning, where the
fiber is separated from the seeds and cleaned (Textile Exchange, Snap Shot, 2014). Most,
but not all, organic cotton spinning mills can be found in the same top organic cotton
producing countries (see Figure 5) such as India and Turkey (International Trade Center).
Other mills are located in developed countries including China, the United States, and
Pakistan, as well as developing countries such as Peru, Portugal, Thailand, Switzerland,
and South Korea. Once cotton is spun in these mills it is transported to different facilities,
sometimes countries apart, and processed through the stages of weaving, dyeing, and
garment construction (International Trade Center).
The decentralized structure of the conventional cotton industry creates unneeded
costs from transportation, as well as increased emissions that could be avoided with a
centralized system of production. Conventional dyes are made from petroleum based
synthetic chemical processes that result in greenhouse gas emissions, additional costs
based on the volatile oil market, and challenges in disposal of hazardous toxic chemicals
from the dyeing process. These hazardous dyes can only be produced and disposed of
properly at specific centralized factories, and present a logistical challenge and major cost
to cotton production, as well as to the problems associated with global climate change.
Using an organic production method from harvest to final construction of a cotton
garment would eliminate these costs, provide a centralized area of production, and reduce
the overall environmental impact (Massachusetts, 2003).
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Physical terrain, geographical location, and climatic factors within the region
where the cotton is farmed are determining factors in whether or not there is a successful
harvest. The climate and abundance of natural resources within the cotton producing
regions impact the amount of cotton that can be yielded (Myers & Stolton, 1999; Sathe &
Crooke, 2010). Utilizing the cottonseed that is appropriate for the region can reduce the
likelihood of crop failures from droughts, infestations, and diseases (Page & Ritchie,
2009). Governments and organizations often dictate the type of cottonseed a farmer can
use, which is not always based on these specific regional factors (Myers & Stolton,
1999).
Figure 5. Geographic locations of organic cotton producers. Source: Textile Exchange, Creating
Material Change, 2011.
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3.33 Geopolitics
The conventional cotton industry is comprised of large corporations and
organizations that are motivated to maximize their profits. The developing regions, where
the majority of conventional cotton farming takes place, provide geopolitical
environments tailored for this profit maximization. Organizations and companies in the
conventional cotton industry exploit the lack of governmental regulatory oversight and
rampant corruption within these regions in order to develop non-competitive
monopolized industries. The United States is the largest exporter of conventional cotton
in the world, the United States cotton farmers benefit from the government subsidies that
are offered keeping prices of cotton low and production high (Claudio, 2007). Some
countries have removed the subsidies leading to the added price of pesticides and
insecticides, for the crop to remain competitive in the market this increase in cost cannot
always be passed on to the buyer and is absorbed by the farmer (Myers & Stolton, 1999).
These organizations can develop agreements with the regional governments to
regulate farming methods, subsidize cotton crops for export, and encourage farmers with
limited revenue options to harvest their crops. The geopolitical environment for these
farmers, and their communities, does not provide them with any opportunity to make
decisions about the careers that affect their livelihood. Sustainable farming methods have
started to become more profitable than conventional cotton farming with more
rationalized production methods increased through environmental legislation (Myers &
Stolton, 1999).
The current conventional cotton industry exploits local farming communities in
developing regions to increase their profitability. “In-country subsidies are designed to
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protect the agricultural sector within the country. Current legislative standards do not
support sustainable production methods; instead they create an inequitable environment
capitalizing on the inability for developing countries to compete in “free markets.”
Organic Cotton value chains can help improve these vulnerable rural economies through
trade, not aid, solutions” (Textile Exchange, Cotton Briefing, 2011).
The United States, China, Turkey, India, and the World Trade Organization
(WTO) all have a vested interest and ability to influence existing and future legislative
and trade policies regarding the subsidization, importation and exportation of cotton
crops. Individual nations need to be regulated by set international standard in order to
provide an equitable and transparent system for cotton farming standards at an
international level. Currently, cotton crops are subsidized and controlled within
individual countries, and these legislative procedures affect the entire global cotton
industry. An example of this is apparent when looking at global cotton production levels
from 2007-2009. Conventional cotton production was severely reduced due to the
economic recession in the United States that affected the entire cotton market sector.
Organic cotton production, being a niche product within this market, was able to increase
in 2007-2008 despite the negative economic effects of the recession. In 2008, India, the
leading organic cotton producer, started implementing increased regulation on organic
cotton and this had a devastating effect on the total global production of organic cotton.
3.34 Environmental Costs of Production
Conventional and organic cotton farming have different impacts on the
environment. Conventional cotton farming methods tend to be more detrimental to the
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local ecosystem and introduce foreign elements. Organic farming is a more balanced
method that utilizes the ecosystem that surrounds the crop and has minimal impact.
3.341 Conventional Cotton
Sustainability of these methods is just recently being questioned in developed
industrial nations, such as The United States, Sweden, and Brazil (Page & Ritchie, 2009).
Cotton production takes up 2.5% of the arable land and the wide practicing of nonsustainable farming has caused the arable land per capita to shrink from 4307 m2 per
person in 1961 to 2137 m2 in 2007 (Textile Exchange, Cotton Briefing, 2011). In the
United States large-scale farming is making a noticeable negative impact on the local
environment and these companies are also encouraging the use of genetically modified
(GM) cottonseeds (Page & Ritchie, 2009).
The hazardous inputs take energy and fuel to produce and then are sprayed onto
the crops making its way into the environment and animals, and if it doesn’t kill them the
harmful properties can be passed onto future generations (Reeves, Katten, & Guzman,
2002). In Brazil, rising prices in fertilizer have made the cotton farming industry nearly
unprofitable in recent years (Page & Ritchie, 2009). These problems developing in
industrialized nations need to be used as examples to the industry providing an increase
in awareness about the unsustainable conventional practices.
Conventional cotton farming utilizes the agricultural practice of monocropping,
which economically can be efficient, but over time this damages the soil ecology.
Monocropping is the agricultural practice of cultivating a single “crop that does not rotate
with other crops in a particular field or area” (Oxford, 2014). One reason conventional
cotton production is unable to practice crop rotation is the use of the highly hazardous
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application of WHO Class 1 (Page & Ritchie, 2009). This pesticide is so potent that it
increases the risk of contaminating the food crop that is planted in the soil the following
growing season. Economically, the process can be efficient and profitable for the
Figure 6. World’s cotton yield and acreage with projection. The projected trend line does not share the
same incline as acreage coverage, displaying that future yield produced per acre will decrease. Source:
Hudson, Mutuc, & Ethridge, 2012.
conventional industries because it allows for the specialization of equipment for a single
crop increasing production outputs. However, the issue with this process is that over time
a single crop depletes the same minerals and nutrients in the soil, and can damage the
ecosystem and it is more vulnerable to infestation. It is projected that acreage coverage
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will increase, but not at the consistent rate as yield output, which displays the
unsustainable long-term process of conventional methods, depicted by Figure 6 (Hudson,
Mutuc, & Ethridge, 2012).
Large amounts of synthetic fertilizers are applied during conventional farming. It
can take almost a 1/3 pound of synthetic fertilizers to grow one pound of raw cotton in
the US, and it takes just under one pound of raw cotton to make on t-shirt (Laursen, S.E.;
Hansen, J.; Knudsen, H.H., Larsen, H.F., & Kristensen, F. M., 2007). Synthetic fertilizers
use 1.5% of the world’s energy to produce and production emits carbon emissions
(Organic Cotton, 2013). The use of nitrogen rich fertilizers speeds up the mineralization
of soil, depleting organic matter and degrading the soil quality (Myers & Stolon, 1999).
To counter the depletion of nutrients in the soil, farmers use fertilizers, which help
maintain the nitrogen and potassium levels high enough to continue farming. Eventually,
the pH levels and organic material reach a point where the land is no longer arable (Page
& Ritchie, 2009). These nitrogen and phosphorous rich fertilizers leach into the ground
water causing eutrophication, which is the process responsible for harmful algal blooms
(Myers & Stolton, 1999).
An artificial unchanged environment as a result of monocropping makes cotton
crops vulnerable to infestations from parasitic and opportunistic organisms (Myers &
Stolton, 1999). Conventional cotton farming supports 25% of the global insecticide
market, 10% of the global pesticide market, and 6.8% of the global herbicide market with
its intensive chemical use (Cluadio, 2007; Ecologist, 2013; Ethical Consumer, 2013;
Warrick, 2013; Organic Cotton, 2013; Reeves et al., 2002; Sathe & Crooke, 2010). The
reduction in biodiversity caused from these chemicals actually increases the threat of
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secondary pests, as a result from the removal of their natural predators (Organic
Cotton.org). In California alone, thirty-five million pounds of pesticides were used on
cotton crops (Solomon & Rabolt, 2004).
The same chemicals used in herbicides, pesticides, and other processes in
conventional farming were used in the development of nerve gas during wartimes
(Patagonia, 2006). These chemicals are most often labeled moderately to highly
hazardous chemicals, as seen in Table 4 about insecticides. The most common pesticide
used for cotton farming, WHO Class 1b3, is labeled as ‘highly hazardous’ and is
extremely toxic to fish (Page & Ritchie, 2009). Aldicarb, the second most used
insecticide on cotton fields, can kill a man with one drop absorbed into the skin (EJF,
2007). Twenty-five countries report using this chemical, the United States being one of
them and sixteen states have found traces in the ground water (EJF, 2007).
Table 4. Prevalent insecticides used in cotton production. Source: Allan Woodburn Associates 1995
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Reason for even more concern is that these farming inputs are not always properly
used and in the hands of individuals that may not understand the true serious harm they
can cause. The miss-use of these chemicals also can counter the very reason they were
created. Farmers are recommended to rotate the use of these chemicals in order to reduce
the likelihood of pests developing a tolerance to persistent exposure from the same
chemical (Page & Ritchie, 2009). The boll weevil, aphid, Heliothis, and Spodoptera have
shown limited levels of resistance to these chemicals. The emergence of chemical
resistant pests has prompted some farmers to abandon their farms, such as remote regions
of India, Nicaragua, Guatemala, Pakistan, Egypt, and Sudan because of crop infestations
from pests that are resistant to chemical eradication methods (Myers & Stolton, 1999).
The overuse of pesticides has even destroyed $150 million worth of cotton at a farm in
Rio Grande Valley, Texas in 1995; these chemicals destroyed all of the pests, plants, and
land. Another case of chemical oversaturation was responsible for the destruction of
crops, pests, and arable farm land in Alabama, Mississippi and Tennessee (Reeves et al.,
2002).
There are many disadvantages and negative impacts that arise from the chemicals
used on cotton crops, see Table 5. Due to the extensive use of pesticides and insecticides,
animals and humans living near cotton fields have reported higher numbers of birth
defects, health problems with farmers using the chemicals, and increased wild animal
mortality (Patagonia, 2006; Ecologist, 2013). The negative impact of pesticides has been
most visibly noticeable on the amphibian populations, birds, fish, and other aquatic
organisms (Kadolph & Langford, 2002; Myers & Stolton, 1999).
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Table 5. The advantages and disadvantages of conventional cotton inputs. This table is a comparison of
the pros and cons in the farming production process of growing conventional cotton. Source: Page and
Ritchie, 2009.
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Conventional cotton is one of the most water dependent crops (Truscott et al.,
2013; Patagonia, 2006; World Wildlife Fund, Cotton: a water wasting crop, 2014). Over
half of cotton agriculture operates by full or supplementary irrigation systems and most
are farmed with the traditional technique called flood irrigation, which reports an
efficiency lower than 40% (Grasser, Salerno, & Thalmann, 1999; World Wildlife Fund,
The Impact of Cotton, 2000). Barnes, the Associate Director of Agricultural Research at
Cotton Inc., argues that cotton as a “water hog” is a made up fallacy (Ross, 2006), but
there is evidence to the contrary, the agriculture sector receives and consumes as much as
70% of the world’s available water (Textile Exchange, Cotton Briefing, 2011). These
irrigation methods contribute to the water dependency of these crops, causing excessive
soil acidity from salinization, (Myers & Stolton, 1999) and contributes to water shortages
(Textile Exchange, Cotton Briefing, 2011).
The pollution of ground and surface water from farming runoffs has had a
significant negative impact on the regional flora and fauna and freshwater ecosystems
(Reeves e al., 2002; Casey, 2007; World Wildlife Fund, The impact of cotton, 2000). The
Aral Sea was once considered the fourth largest body of freshwater, but now is too
polluted with saline and pesticides to support any fish (Truscott et al., 2013; Myers &
Stolton, 1999; World Wildlife Fund, Cotton: a water wasting crop, 2014).
Harvesting the conventional cotton crop uses defoliants and heavy machinery to
gather the cotton fiber. Defoliants are sprayed on the plant to stimulate cotton boll
development and leaf drop, which enhances and reduces the cost for harvesting and
ginning. The machinery uses more fossil fuel and can cover up the flaws in the cotton
lessening the quality of the final product. “The string of environmental problems is
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continuing everyday by means of salinization, a loss of biodiversity, adverse changes in
water balance, and pesticide-related problems including resistance” (Myers & Stolton,
1999).This chemical can also affect the health of the environment and life within the
local area. Arial defoliant application in California communities growing cotton has seen
an increase in flu-like symptoms.
Conventional cotton continues to be the dominant textile in the garment industry
and a significant crop among global agriculture. The plant/commodity good absorbs
massive amounts of water and chemicals, contaminates the environment and the food
chain, jeopardizing the health of the local community, and destroying the ecosystem. The
farming of conventional cotton only harms the environment for the sake of textiles that
are consumed and disposed at a rapid rate.
3.342 Organic Cotton Farming
Organic cotton uses farming characteristics that maintain the quality and
availability of water, use pesticides responsibly, maintain the health of the soil, and
preserve natural habitats (Page & Ritchie, 2009). Federal regulation prohibits the use of
genetically modified seeds in organic farming (Organic Trade Association, 2014).
Education and training are essential to promote and implement sustainable and efficient
farming with organic cotton. The use of pesticides on organic farms is replaced with local
botanicals to control infestations, promoting natural enemies to combat the infesting
organisms (Page & Ritchie, 2009). Organic production is a safe and environmentally
responsible alternative to conventional methods, providing long-term economic and
environmental sustainability (Myers & Stolton, 1999).
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“Organic cotton growers rely on nutrient manipulation, water management,
mechanical topping, and organic acid-base foliar sprays to assist in boll maturation, boll
opening, plant desiccation, and leaf drop” (Myer & Stolton, 1999). Organic cotton
farming uses natural fertilizers, conducts field preparation, and uses minimal to no
chemicals (Solomon & Rabolt, 2004). “From an environmental standpoint, every pound
of organic cotton means about one-third less pound of pesticides in the United States”
(Wilson, 2004). Organic farming, “relies on ecological processes, biodiversity and cycles
adapted to local conditions, rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects”
(Textileexchange.org, 2013). With the appropriate cottonseed being used, based on
geographical and climatic factors, large and small-scale farms can implement sustainable
production strategies eliminating the need for artificial supplementation of the
environment (Page & Rithchi, 2009). This type of farming has been proven to be more
resilient to climate extremes and in some cases produce an increase in lint yield (Textile
Exchange, Cotton Briefing, 2011).
Crop rotation is one of the key differences between organic cotton farming and
the monoculture system used with conventional methods. The crop rotating system
protects soil diversity by replacing the nutrients, reduces weed populations, maintain
adequate soil conditions (Myers & Stolton, 1999), and prevents pests from overwintering (Page & Ritchie, 2009). Crops are rotated every three to four years. Growing
several crops in close proximity at once through is called intercropping. Cover crops are
grown during the off-seasons to manage the micronutrients and macronutrients that were
depleted during the crop cycle (Myers & Stolton, 1999). Converting a crop to be organic
takes a minimum of three years to allow the soil to neutralize (Hulm, 2008).
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Crop rotation protects biodiversity, as seen in Figure 7. The bars above the zero
line represent that number of studies that showed organic cotton farms having positive
effects on animals and plant varieties. The bar that falls below the zero represents the
organic farms that had a negative effect on biodiversity. Overall, the results show that
many more studies had a positive effect on environmental diversity (Truscott et al.,
2013).
Figure 7. Organic farming impact on local biodiversity. Source: Truscott et al., 2013.
Additional steps can be taken to manage the soil nutrient levels. Introducing
compost, rock phosphates, bacteria, and fungi to aid the decomposition and nutrition
levels in the soil. Composts are combined with rock phosphates and both of these
nutrient-rich materials combined together develop an acid that changes the phosphates
into a soluble form. Azotobacter and Azospirillum bacterias are introduced to facilitate
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nitrogen fixation while Mycorrhizae and Bacillus Flavus assist with phosphorous
absorption (Myers & Stolton, 1999). Organic soil retains 40-50% more water than
conventional farming soil, which helps during dry conditions (Textile Exchange, Cotton
Briefing, 2011; Textile Exchange, Creating Material Change, 2011).
Seventy to eighty percent of organic cotton is rain fed, while the remaining uses
the efficient drip irrigation (Textile Exchange, Snap Shot, 2014) or alternative row
irrigation that utilizes the surface water from local water irrigation district. Excessive
watering can lead to an increase in the levels of plant growth, sacrificing boll
development, and attracting lygus bugs and aphids, which can lead to a reduction in crop
yields. An organic cotton harvest can produce more yields when the water supply is
limited earlier in the growing season (Myers & Stolton, 1999).
Pest management strategies with organic cotton farming are used on an as-needed
basis, focusing on monitoring, maintaining, and restoring natural balances. Clean
weeding is not practiced in this method, because of the natural pest controlling organisms
that the weeds attract (Myers & Stolton, 1999). This system has shown to be more
effective with reduced pest populations identified in organic farming systems.
Conventional farming methods have shown increased pest populations because the
organisms that naturally control these pests are eliminated with the use of chemicals
(Myers & Stolton, 1999).
There are many tools that can be used in the place of harmful chemicals that
organic cotton production utilizes. Table 6, shows a list of the most prominent activities
and tools that organic cotton farming uses. The disadvantages can be challenging, but in
no way compare to the harmful destruction that conventional cotton production has.
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Table 6. The advantages and disadvantages of organic cotton. The inputs under the tools column
marked with an asterisk are specific to this best practice. Source: Page & Ritchie, 2009.
Organic cotton is picked and weeded by hand rather than conventional
mechanized harvesting methods. Weeding organic cotton is done with mechanical
cultivation and by hand hoeing as oppose to herbicides for conventional cotton. Hand
picking reduces environmental waste, improves the cotton quality and creates local job
opportunities (Myers & Stolton, 1999). Organic cotton has the challenge of minimizing
leaf trash from incomplete defoliation, which can cause an increase in ginning and
spinning costs. Alternatives used for organic defoliation are minimal, nutrient and water
management is the best management approach (Gibbs et al., 2005). Farmers can use citric
acid/clove oil, effective microbes, mineral application of specific zinc’s or magnesium
chloride, or use thermal defoliation, which is a tractor-pulled propane burner (Gibbs et
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al., 2005). These natural methods all need to be implemented and documented in order to
meet the standards of organic certification in the industry.
3.35 Certification
For a garment to be sold as an organic cotton product, the entire production
process must meet rigorous guidelines and be granted certification by an independent
accredited third party (Textileexchange.org, 2013). These organizations certifying
organic authenticity have succeeded in expanding the organic cotton market by
establishing standards and building trust.
Obtaining the certification comes as an additional expense for the supplier, as
seen in Table 7, but provides legal and brand protection. Certification provides
transparency of the production process for the textile industry and consumer; also
providing additional support to the supplier allowing access to new markets (Myers &
Stolton, 1999; Robinson, 2003).
Country
Certification cost in relation to
value of cotton
USA
India
Egypt
Peru
Uganda
1.30%
8.00%
0.10%
0.50%
4.30%
Table 7. Added cost of certification. These numbers represent the additional costs for obtaining organic
certification for some of the countries that grow organic cotton. Source: Myers & Stolton, 1999.
The certification process is enacted and performed by different involved parties.
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO’s), government agencies, and private companies
provide certification after inspecting the production process in order to make sure they
adhere to the organic standards (Myers & Stolton, 1999). Certified organic cotton labels
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are also granted by Faritrade, MyBMP, Cotton made in Africa (CmiA), and the Cotton
Program Manager (ABR).
There are many involved parties in the certifying business. Efforts are often made
by very involved organizations like BCI, a non-profit organization, acting as a nexus
between farmers and the industry, regulating and granting certification (BIMECO, 2014).
Global Organic Textile Standard (GOTS) is another international working group that
audits the organic cotton throughout the supply chain to protect ecology and the labor
conditions (GlobalStandard.org, 2013). Additionally, independent companies, such as the
Control Union and the Institute for Marketecology (IMO), are hired by retailers to audit
the organic cotton production process (Illge & Preuss, 2012).
The Global Organic Textile Standard (GOTS) identifies and outlines the
processes and procedures throughout the manufacturing of organic textiles; “From
harvesting of the raw materials, through environmentally and socially responsible
manufacturing up to labeling in order to provide a credible assurance to the end
consumer” (Global Organic Standard, 2013). Global Organic Textile Standard’s audits
factories through residue testing and by an on site compliance audit (Global Organic
Standard, 2013). In order for an end cotton product to receive the GOTS organic label, it
must be comprised of a minimum of 95% certified organic cotton fibers, whereas a
product that is labeled “made with organic” only requires 70% certified organic fibers
(Global Organic Standard, 2013). In 2009 more than 2000 textile companies participated
in the organic cotton certification system outlined by GOTS, which has been credited to
increasing the organic cotton production (Illge & Preuss, 2012; Organic Trade
Association, 2014).
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During all stages of the manufacturing process, conventional and organic cotton
must be kept separate, in order for organic cotton to be certified. These companies
impose continuous oversight over the process in order to minimize the environmental
impact from unnecessary waste. During wet processing records of waste levels, chemical,
energy, and water usage are annotated and the wastewater is then treated prior to
disposal. “Bleaches must be based on oxygen, Azo dyes that release carcinogenic amine
compounds are prohibited, and the use of sizing agents is restricted: knitting and weaving
oils must not contain heavy metals” (Global Organic Standard, 2013). The International
Labour Organization (ILO) establishes guidelines for sustainable packaging practices,
technical standards, and the criteria for personal safety standards (Global Organic
Standard, 2013).
Farmers are faced with new challenges when implementing organic farming
practices. Certified organic cotton standards exclude all samples that show positive GMO
traces that frequently occur due to cross-pollination from surrounding cotton fields using
genetically modified cottonseeds (Illge & Preuss, 2012). Farmers also face the additional
expenses associated with organic certification (Myers & Stolton, 1999). Chemical
concentrations in the soil also may prevent an immediate transition for farmers from
conventional to organic certification. Even if a farm meets all standards needed to grow
organic crops, government regulations may prevent them from doing so by banning
certain organic seeds (Myers & Stolton, 1999). In Peru, the government exercises control
over the dates of planting, harvesting, and water (Myers & Stolton, 1999). The transition
from conventional to organic farming will initially provide short-term obstacles for
farmers, but will provide a sustainable and profitable future for them.
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3.36 Social Impacts of Cotton Farming
Regions that implement organic farming practices stand to benefit monetarily in
the long-term, but also experience an increase in quality of life and standards of living.
Farmers develop relationships and gain access to continued education and training
programs, women in the industry gain independence and reduced discrimination, and
labor conditions are improved throughout the industry. Aside from the individuals
directly involved in the organic farming process, the entire local community benefits
from increased access to education and the additional revenue entering into the local
economy. The transition from conventional to organic cotton farming will drastically
improve the socio-economic conditions throughout the region.
3.361 Farmers
Conventional farmers are the most economically disadvantaged and have the least
amount of leverage in the cotton supply chain (Truscott et al., 2013). Ten percent of
fatalities in the agricultural industry are linked to pesticides (Myers & Stolton, 1999).
Approximately 20,000 people die in developing countries a year from poisoning caused
by chemical applications from agriculture (Ecologist, 2013). Laborers are frequently
exposed to large volumes of chemicals that can lead to immediate health concerns such as
poisoning, or more distant future health concerns such as cancer (Pesticide Action
Network, 2014; Sathe & Crooke, 2010; Usher, et al., 2013). Warning labels, often
ignored, on chemical packaging advise workers to wear boots, gloves, protective
clothing, and a respirator to prevent exposure (Page & Ritchie, 2009). The hot and humid
climate present in most cotton producing regions is one reason why most workers ignore
these warnings to avoid the discomfort and risk of overheating. Lack of adequate
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equipment continually results in spills, poisoning and incorrect application as observed
by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (2014). Cotton farms are often
underfunded, and if the workers wanted to wear the protective gear that is advised, they
would have to pay for it separately, but cannot afford (EJF, 2007; Page & Ritchie, 2009).
Organic cotton farmers have access to training, education, technical support, and
partnerships with organizations that protect the farmer and his property from the
hardships and risks that are experienced by conventional farmers (Organic Cotton, 2013).
Organic farmers having direct relationships with supplier’s increases social capital and
opportunities to areas that face limited economic means (Warrick, 2013; Illge & Preuss,
2012; Usher, et al., 2013). “Where we are seeing more established ‘partnerships’ we are
also seeing sector leadership, innovation, shared investment in environmental or
community projects, and support of local entrepreneurship” (Textileexchnge.org, 2014).
Benefits from knowledge intensification programs develop skills for growers that will
improve yields and quality of the organic crop (Texileexchange.org, 2014). Small farms
also create research, as the farmer generates new information for creating solutions. This
information has aided in alternative farming aids and on-farm research is exchanged
among the farming community (Myers & Stolton, 1999).
3.362 Women
Women working in the organic cotton industry have increased access to education
and employment opportunities, less risk of being targeted for gender specific
discriminatory practices, and improved working conditions than their conventional
counterparts. The use of hazardous chemicals in conventional production and farming
methods produces conditions that are detrimental to women during pregnancy (Usher, et
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al., 2013). Most job vacancies in the conventional cotton industry with the potential for
hazardous chemical exposure are exclusively for men (Myers & Stolton, 1999). With the
limitations for potential jobs in the industry, women are given lower wages and little
opportunity for advancement (Myers & Stolton, 1999).
Companies such as Better Cotton Initiative (BCI), who provide access to
resources and potential partnering organizations, require all parties to provide equal
wages and opportunities to women (Usher, et al., 2013). The multi-investor structure of
the organic cotton market also offers financing and property to women, that is an option
that is rarely provided to women in the developing cotton producing regions (Usher, et
al., 2013). As of 2012, 54,000 women have been trained in sustainable farming practices
with the assistance of BCI (Better Cotton Initiative, Harvest Report, 2012). Transitioning
to organic cotton farming helps reduce gender inequality, providing women with new
opportunities, education, and empowerment.
Lack of government regulations in developing countries, and limited to no
oversight from the end product industries, expose laborers to inequitable treatment
(Better Cotton Initiative, 2012). As seen in Table 8 these are the countries were this
practice has been reported (Department of Labor). According to the World Bank, forced,
bonded, and child labor are common practices in these developing regions, and most
laborers receive a wage below the established international poverty threshold (Usher, et
al., 2013).
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Table 8. Countries producing cotton with child and forced labor. Source: Gurney & Jurewicz.
The organic cotton industry follows international fair labor guidelines and
provides oversight through continuous audits. The Better Cotton Initiative holds farmers
accountable for their labor standards and companies are motivated to meet these
standards in order to continue to have access to the organic market (Usher, et al., 2013).
Reduced chemical usage improves working conditions and eliminates the potential for
workers to get ill, or die, from toxic exposure. Protective suits are no longer needed, and
the workers are able to work comfortably without the fear of exposure. Laborers working
within the organic cotton market, as opposed to conventional markets, are provided a fair
wage, a comfortable, healthy, and safe work environment, and the comfort of knowing
they have long-term job security.
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3.363 Community
Aside from the lack of sustainability associated with conventional farming, the
effects from conventional methods are detrimental to the regional environment.
Chemicals from pesticides are leached into the ground and seep into the groundwater
(Better Cotton Initiative, Harvest Report, 2012; Myers & Stolton, 1999). The regions
surrounding some conventional cotton farms have reported high rates of birth defects,
infant mortality, and diseases from blood borne pathogens (Myers & Stolton, 1999).
Conventional cotton contaminates food by the multiple toxic chemicals entering
the food chain through indirect and direct means. Research estimates that 65% of the
cotton plant ends up in our food chain through cottonseed oil, used as a food preservative,
or indirectly by livestock that ingests contaminated cotton stalks or water (EJF, 2007;
Myers & Stolton, 1999; Ross, 2006). Conventional farming methods reduce biodiversity
in the environment, negatively affect local food sources, and reduce the overall health
and life quality in the community.
Conventional cotton farming not only contaminates the region’s water, but also
requires excessive amounts of water in order to harvest. The Aral Sea lost 60% of its
volume due to the irrigation systems of conventional farms, which collect the water from
rivers that feed into the Aral Sea (Myers & Stolton, 1999; World Wildlife Fund, The
impact of cotton, 2000). Organic cotton farming aims to conserve the water through
methods of education, innovation, and conservation that would otherwise be wasted with
conventional. The Better Cotton Initiative educates cotton farmers in the selection of
cottonseeds based on the climate, calculating the volume of water needed to adequately
sustain the crop, and also provide farmers with equipment that increases efficiency and
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assists in water conservation (Better Cotton Initiative, Harvest Report, 2012). Organic
cotton farming improves the quality of the water for the community, and increases the
supply available to them through innovative and efficient conservation methods and
equipment.
Sustainable practices associated with organic cotton farming are beneficial to the
regional and adjacent communities. Crop rotation methods not only improve soil fertility,
but also provide another crop that can be sold locally. An organic farmer can harvest
vegetables in the off-season, which can provide additional food for the community and
income for the farmer. Eighty percent of organic cotton farmers surveyed by Textile
Exchange (2014) reported that they had food security. A farmer may also choose a crop
to export for additional revenue, which is then circulated into the local economy (Organic
cotton, 2013; Myers & Stolton, 1999). A region, over time, will have increased
biodiversity with this holistic farming method, reducing pest infestations. The reduction
of pesticides and fertilizers will increase the water quality in the region that is affected by
chemical runoff, which will improve the health of the entire community (Organic Cotton,
2013).
By establishing new practices, education, and holding farmers accountable,
organizations like BCI can have a positive influence that can benefit the community as a
whole. The infrastructures and frameworks developed through education, training, and
partnerships in organic farming improve the regional income levels, health, safety, and
labor practices (Usher, et al., 2013). Fair wages, labor practices, and the development of
skilled workers through training and education provide the farm with a long-term,
reliable, and efficient group of skilled laborers (Usher, et al., 2013). Long-term benefits
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of organic cotton farming will increase the level of education, environment, and quality
of life for the surrounding community. Companies who increase trade from the rural
communities improve and invests in the socio-economic opportunities
(Textileexchange.org, 2014).
3.4 Economic Conditions of Cotton Production
The following section explores the organic cotton production through an
economic lense. The economics begin to differentiate between the two cottons at the
production level and continue through the supply chain. The actual costs of production,
not ignoring the hidden costs to the environment, will be addressed by identifying
negative externalities. Then the text outlines the economic risks that can take place
throughout different points in the supply chain and to the identified investors. Followed
by a breakdown of organic cotton’s cost and how the final price is determined at retail
level.
3.41 Cotton as a Market Commodity
Understanding the future of the organic cotton market is best quantified and
analyzed with economic discipline. Cotton is such a dominant agriculture crop that it is
recognized globally as an export commodity (Textile Exchange, Cotton Briefing, 2011).
The cotton market is affected by world economic conditions, weather, and political
unstableness (Truscott et al., 2013). Market trends of conventional and organic cotton
production influence the decisions and prices in the fashion industry. Capitalism and
fashion inherently share the same consuming characteristics that support the continual act
of buying (Claudio, 2007). This structure supports the continual growth of the fashion
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industry, and has contributed towards the three-hundred billion dollar (US dollars) cotton
market (Sathe & Crooke, 2010).
3.42 Market Structure
The market structures between the two cottons are also different. Conventional
cotton fiber is sold on the market against all other producers competing for buyers. The
structure of the conventional cotton market is vulnerable to price volatility, and supply
and demand can experience unforeseen dips and spikes due to factors like time that are
unique to the agriculture and fashion industry. Organic cotton has a unique multipartnership structure that reduces a middleman and has alternative purchasing method.
Conventional cotton garments maneuver through an integrated vertical supply
chain, where the retails increasingly hold buying power (Nordas, 2004). Figure 8, shows
the visual representation of the conventional cotton market. Conventional garment prices
are specified from the retailer and pushes the constraint backwards down the line of
production (top down) unlike the organic alternative that finds the traditional method of
establishing the final cost based on adding a profit margin to the established price of
production (bottom up). Conventional cotton garments are designed first by a retailer,
then orders identifying quality, price, and color are placed with a third party that produces
the fabric to the standards specified (Myers & Stolton, 1999; Sen, 2008).
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Figure 8. Conventional cotton market structure. Source: www.UNCTAD.com
The company choosing to dedicate their efforts towards a sustainable cotton
alternative must start at the beginning of the supply chain with the farmers (Myers &
Stolton, 1999). Relationships are established between supplier and producer with the
assistance of organic cotton initiatives and NGO’s. Organic cotton initiatives and nonprofit organizations partner suppliers with producers for the mission of increasing organic
cotton production. Retailers and farmers communicate and make decisions on what
aspect will be sacrificed for the sake of cost, quantity, and will agree on the final price
paid to the farmer for the fiber (Myers & Stolton, 1999). The organic cotton market
benefits from its unusual structure of partnerships and the practice of future crop sales.
“Longer-term, committed value chains can decouple their business from the market and
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base it on their own predicted business growth. Allowing all parties to plan and produce/
buy accordingly” (Textile Exchange, Cotton Briefing, 2011).
Organic cotton initiatives vary in size but all are lending support and resources to
further improvement. Smaller initiatives focus on countries such as, Cotton made in
Africa, Bayer e3, and The Sustainable Cotton Project & Cleaner Cotton (Truscott et al,
2013). Larger organizations that play a role in the organic cotton market are
CottonConnect, FiBL Research Institute of Organic Agriculture, HELVETAS Swiss
Interoperation, and Agro Eco (Truscott et al., 2013). Growth in the organic cotton
farming has seen a direct increase from these organizations, by means of reducing market
risk and securing buyers. Better Cotton Initiative has reported continuous expansion, and
even more so in the last couple of years. The Better Cotton Initiative Fast Track brands
(BCFTP) procured 30,000 metric tons of cotton lint, 15% more than they had targeted for
(Warrick, 2013).
3.43 Negative Externalities
Conventional cotton production partakes in environmentally harmful practices
that are not reflected in the true cost of the finished product. These practices are known as
negative externalities and result in problems for the community and society as a whole. A
negative externality occurs when a business or organization makes a decision that they
are not held accountable to pay for, and the cost to the community is greater than the cost
to the consumer paying for it. If businesses were held accountable for costs associated
with the environmental damage caused from production, garments made from organic
cotton production methods would be less expensive than the conventionally produced
counterparts.
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The reality of the textile industry is that businesses are not held accountable for
their decisions, and negative externalities are not factored into the price of a garment
(Myers & Stolton 1999). Corporations and businesses take advantage of the lack of
accountability and oversight of environmentally harmful production methods to increase
their profits. Environmental contamination from chemicals entering the water, food
chain, and soil, increases the community’s susceptibility to developing disease and
various long-term health issues. Additionally erosion, the reduction of bio-diversity, and
the introduction of synthetic fertilizers into the environment add to the rate of pollution
and climate change, causing long-term irreparable damage.
“Organic cotton is better than traditional cotton for the health of natural systems,
but the market incentives are not aligned with its long-term environmental benefits”
(Sathe & Crooke, 2010). Domestic and international fiscal policy and regulatory
oversight needs to be implemented and/or revised to hold the textile industry accountable
for the environmental damages caused from production. Research has shown that once
the textile industry is held accountable for the impact it causes on the environment and
surrounding community, the garment developed with organic production methods costs
significantly less for both the company and consumer (Myers & Stolton, 1999).
3.45 Costs of Inputs Comparison
It is not possible to say that one type of cotton is always more profitable to grow
than the other, too many variables exist from crop to crop. Trying to compare the costs
between cotton farming is best done within the same country and as close to proximity as
possible, because the cost of inputs and varying climates (Myers & Stolton, 1999). In the
case of cotton grown in Turkey the production cost of organic cotton is twenty times
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more than conventional. Half of that cost is from the farming production, 5% is
accumulated through the supply chain covering logistical and certification costs, and the
remaining is associated with the trader, segregation, ginning, warehouse costs, and
inspections. Research has compared organic and conventional crops within the same
country and found that fluctuating climate and cost of inputs make certain locations more
profitable for organic cotton farming than others.
For the financial success of a cotton crop, the farmer needs to assess the external
factors: scale of production, research support, quality and price of seeds, access to
irrigation, access to timely inputs, longevity of season, production costs, financial details
(like access to credit and time of payment), and the local ginning capacity (Page &
Ritchie, 2009). Additional economic feasibility calculations should account for location,
government regulations, subsidies, etc. The market price of cotton is distorted due to the
industry being heavily subsidized and taxed. Subsidies like, diesel and water, vary by the
type of good and amount depending on the country making it difficult to calculate price
(Myers & Stolton, 1999).
3.441 Conventional Cotton
Large financial investments are required to start a farm that are profitable in the
conventional cotton industry (Alweendo, 2008; Ikiara & Ndirangu, 2002; You &
Chamberlin, 2004). An economy of scale is a necessity for profitability in these
companies, which suppress emerging competition in the industry (Page & Ritchie, 2009).
In developing countries the priority of farmers is the immediate income with little
concern for long-term environmental destruction, which has contributed to the largely
practiced conventional system. Rather than invest in alternative production methods,
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conventional cotton farmers resort to temporary, unsustainable, and environmentally
damaging solutions to stay profitable, such as the use of plastic mulch (Myers & Stolton,
1999). Labor, electricity, fuel, fertilizer and other various chemicals are the resources
being depleted with conventional cotton farming (Myers & Stolton, 1999; Winkle, 1978).
Chemicals used for conventional cotton makes up half the cost of production in
most of the world (Myers & Stolton, 1999). In the USA, (cotton farms largely taking part
in the states of California, Arizona, and Texas) cotton farmers are dependent on
pesticides and are seeking ways of combating the rising cost (Myers & Stolton 1999).
Brazil has faced a recent economic challenge with production because of the higher
amounts of inputs needed to combat poor soil fertility (Page & Ritchie, 2009). Fertilizers
and insecticides are applied to the crops at least 15 times during a year, representing 45%
of the production costs (Page & Ritchie, 2009).
3.442 Organic Cotton
Organic cotton production costs can vary enormously. The inputs vary from
conventional cotton farming. Organic agriculture does not have the large expense of
chemicals and fertilizers although there is an additional cost of labor and certification.
Organic cotton does not have to take out interest baring loans for the initial investment of
chemicals and fertilizers. Organic farming has much less expenses from the elimination
of expensive synthetic fertilizer, pesticides, herbicides, and insecticides (Better Cotton
Initiative, Harvest Report, 2012). In the organic production system the farmers save on
the cost of fertilizers by using local resources such as compost and manure, but if those
are not available buying organic fertilizer from another source can be more expensive and
quickly negate the savings (Myers & Stolton, 1999; Organic Cotton, 2013). For example,
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organic fertilization in Egypt and Peru are more expensive and the crops are more prone
to pests, making the organic crop less profitable some years within these two countries
(Myers & Stolton, 1999).
Water and energy are significantly reduced in organic farming. The method of
rain fed crops and drip irrigation systems reduce the excess use of water and save
expenses. Completely rain fed crops eliminates the cost of irrigation installation and
maintenance. By reducing fossil fuel dependency, organic cotton farming also can save
up to 40% of energy expenses as oppose to conventional harvesting (Textile Exchange,
Snap Shot, 2014). For example, in the United States organic cotton farming uses 16%
less fossil fuels during the growing and harvesting process (Myers & Stolton, 1999).
Organic production has financial wins and losses. Organic cotton production may
have a low overhead investment by the absence of chemicals, but certified organic cotton
takes on the additional expense of certification and labor. Table 9, shows the premium
price to yield output and how it affects the profit margin (Myers & Stolton, 1999).
Country/State
India
Egypt
Peru
California
Cost price increase
of organic
production per unit
of land
Yield decrease of
organic per unit
of land
Premium Price
-16%
2%
11%
11%
14%
7%
20%
12%
25%
15%
18%
50%
Table 9. Organic cotton as it differs from conventional cotton production. Source:
Organic cotton crops have an added labor cost instead of the use of hazardous
chemicals. The additional labor expense is accrued for tasks such as spot weeding,
monitoring the soil, and watching for infestation and disease (Sathe & Crooke, 2010;
Solomon & Robalt, 2004). Depending on the region the labor expenses vary. Turkey is a
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location that experiences such price competition in the cotton market, because it has a
higher standard of living than a majority of other cotton producing countries. This can be
exemplified in the organic cotton price due to the added labor needs (Textile Exchange,
Turkey, 2013). Although, most research concludes that organic farming produces a
steeper profit margin due to the price premium and the absence of chemical expenses,
regardless of the added certification cost (Textile Exchange, Cotton Briefing, 2011).
Figure 9. Input comparison in cotton production. The different inputs in farming cotton are compared
between conventional farming methods and organic. Source: Myers and Stolton, 1999.
Organic cotton initiatives have been documenting the quantifiable
differences between conventional and organic production. The Pre Organic Cotton
(POC) program focused on the transitioning of cotton crops in India to be certifiably
organic. During the process POC reduced agrochemical purchases by 73.3%,
increased yields by 27.6%, and reduced over production costs by 36.2%. The health
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of farmers also improved significantly overall and reported a decrease in headaches,
dizziness, and coughing with an overall improvement of skin and eyes (Pre Organic
Cotton Program, 2014). In Mali, Pakistan, and India, BCI partnered with farmers to
reduce water use by 20%, use 67% less pesticides, and reduced the use of commercial
fertilizer by 33% all while reporting a 20% higher yield than control groups (Warrick,
2013).
Sixty farms in India grew organic and conventional cotton and reported
conventional cotton yields were 14% higher, but organic production costs were 16% to
37% lower, depending on the area of India, and in the following years the organic yields
increased (Myers & Stolton, 1999). Overall, the research has shown that organic
production costs are lower, mature organic crops produce more yield, and therefore the
predominant organic cotton producing countries have shown that organic is more
profitable.
Conventional and organic cotton farming both share the same goals and
challenges, they are managed in different ways. By the process of sustainable farming the
elimination of all excess and chemicals saves the organic cotton farmers money, but the
farms still have to fend off diseases, pests, and harvest the cotton. Organic cotton farming
can reduce the production cost through better management practices and training (Sathe
& Crooke, 2010). It is more financially beneficial long-term and protects against rising
costs of chemicals and fuel.
3.45 Cost of Organic Cotton Production through the Supply Chain
The apparel supply chain is important because of the strategical importance that
directly affects the success or failure of a company (Sen, 2008). Other additional costs
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accumulate during the production of organic cotton due to a multiplying effect where the
increase cost is passed through production. Most the additional cost happens during the
growing stage from certification and increase in labor. The multiplying effect in cost
continues to accrue from the need to clean the ginning and weaving machines of
conventional cotton, separate handling that is required and smaller runs (Myers &
Stolton, 1999). Organic cotton does have the ability to reduce cost by enhancing the
supply line through identifying potential problems before they occur by means of
technology and the accompaniment of the distinct line of communication. “Designers
becoming ecological and involved in the supply chain have access to experts to help
make necessary changes upstream and further increase the commercial viability of
organic cotton” (Myers & Stolton, 1999).
3.46 Economic Risk
Economic risk occurs throughout the cotton garment production process. All the
involved parties face risk when interacting and conducting business at any point in the
supply chain. Organic cotton and conventional cotton contribute different risks, but most
of these liabilities that come with agriculture and business can be counteracted.
3.461 Risk to Farmers
Regardless of the chosen production method farmers will face the economic risk
of global recession, fluctuations in foreign exchange rates, and increased costs along the
supply chain. The market structure varies between the two types of cotton and degree of
risk can increase of decrease with the size of crop. The market structure and the intimate
size of the organic cotton market offer more economic stability and a secure future for the
farmer.
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The conventional cotton farmer faces many risks regardless of the crop size.
Although, small-scale conventional farming (the most prevalent size of crop) exercising
monocropping creates an even higher risk, dependency, and vulnerability (Textile
Exchange, Cotton Briefing, 2011). Conventional crops are planted, grown, and sold
months later into a largely saturated market. Growth rate of a cotton crop can never
compete with the volatile price that represents the stock price on the international stock
exchange. The alarming case of 2009 is one example where cotton was trading $57.05
(US dollar) per pound in August and by October it dropped 29%, cutting into the profit
margin of production (Page & Ritchie, 2009).
Conventional cotton farmers work in a financially tumultuous situation that can
create a large amount of debt with a single bad harvesting season. Conventional farmers
will often take out loans leveraged against their property to finance the next harvest. They
use this money to supplement their income and pay for supplies and labor until the end of
the season, where they receive a lump sum payment that they use to pay off the loan
(Page & Ritchie, 2009). If the harvest yields less than expected, or crops fail from
environmental conditions (i.e. weather, infestation, disease) the farmer’s future harvests
will be used to pay off this debt and further reduce profits (Page & Ritchie, 2009). If
multiple harvests fail consecutively, this creates a financial situation that is nearly
impossible for the farmer to recover from, and he/she could possibly lose the farm that
provides livelihood to him/her and his/her family. India has been dubbed the nickname
“the suicide belt” referring to the average rate of one farmer committing suicide one in
every eight hours from the inability to pay off his/her debts (Organic Trade Association,
2014). These debt cycles has led to an increase in suicide rates among conventional
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farming community, but there have been no suicide within the organic cotton community
reported (Textile Exchange, Cotton Briefing, 2011).
The organic cotton market can be more desirable to a farmer than conventional
cotton market due to the fact that it is artificially manipulated by subsidies and
susceptible to fluctuations (Better Cotton Initiative, Harvest Report, 2013). Due to the
small size of organic fiber production the market can be more secure, with an increase in
demand, a low supply, and little competition to drive prices down; certain years can be
very lucrative (Textile Exchange, Cotton Briefing, 2011). As it is, organic cotton farmers
are not producing enough yield to fulfill demand (Hulm, 2008). Organic cotton producers
are not in danger of entering an overly saturated market with weakened prices and are
selling in a market that delivers more respect.
Organic cotton can also provide a higher revenue stream for the farmer due to an
attached premium price. Farmer’s growing organic cotton can receive up to 30% more for
their crop depending on the country and buyer (Illge & Preuss, 2012; Organic Cotton,
2013). Small-scale organic cotton farmers have reported a more stable income than that
of conventional farmers, which allowed them to provide health care, food security, and
education (Truscott et al., 2013). Price premiums and the diversification of their crops
reduce the financial risk to farmers (Page & Ritchie, 2009).
The organic cotton industry is set up in a way where the farmer and partner
organizations share a mutual risk and responsibility for the cotton crop
(TextileExchange.org, 2013). Organic cotton farmers have the luxury to pre-sell harvests
at guaranteed prices, called forward selling, enabling farmers to plan scales of production
confidently. Buyer’s will assist with pre-financing, reducing the middleman, which
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increases the financial reward to the farmer and provides them with tools to grow a
quality product (Textileexchange.org, 2013). This business model develops long-term
relationships between farmers and companies or organizations they partner with, creating
a stable and sustainable production model while reducing financial burdens and risks for
all involved parties (Better Cotton Initiative, Overview of the Better Cotton, 2009).
3.462 Risk and the Supply Chain
The supply chain that connects farmers to retailers is sensitive to profit loss.
Uniquely the conventional cotton market and retail industry work backwards. Retailers
influence and manage the textile supply chain by establishing the desired cost of the
finished garment, consequently leaving the producers to find profit through streamlining
the production process and attain largest yields (Nordas, 2004). The challenge to the
retail/fashion industry is the struggle between balancing business performance and
flexibility with environmental consciousness and sustainability in another (Illge &
Preuss, 2012).
To improve the management of the supply chain, organizations like the BCI
analyze and monitor past and current sales between suppliers and buyers (Better Cotton
Initiative, Harvest Report, 2012). An ideal model includes a holistic approach that
integrates all involved parties planning and communicating openly to best meet demand
and reduces risk (Truscott et al., 2013). Greater engagement, capacity building, and
investment are needed to increase the efficiency and success of the supply chain (Truscott
et al, 2013).
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3.463 Risk to the Retailer
Economic risk has hindered the organic cotton garment market’s expansion. After
a decade of production it is still significantly small. In 2008, five fashion retailers
supported 57% the organic cotton market (Illge & Preuss, 2012). Potential investors are
nervous because they see a lack of data as a lack of transparency (Illge & Preuss, 2012).
Organic Cotton poses different risks to retailers. A smaller market creates risk because if
a company fails to receive the amount of fiber ordered for garment construction it leaves
little to no other production sources to buy from. Depending on the size of a company
and structure of their supply chain the retailer’s practice in acquiring organic cotton has
to be part of a well thought out business strategy. To combat risk retailers can mitigate
insecurity through smart business strategies, continual analysis of the market, and open
communication with producers.
Retail companies can reduce risk by proactively taking part in sustainable
practices before scrutiny or resource scarcity forces change. For example, the growing
competition for land use is mitigated with crop rotation during organic cotton production
(Truscott et al., 2013). “Due to the increasing scarcity of fossil fuels and fresh water,
expanding population, and rising cost of farm inputs it is almost certain that within the
next 5 to 10 years sustainable agricultural practices (i.e. using less energy, water, and
agrichemicals: will provide more cost effective food and fiber” (Textile Exchange,
Cotton Briefing, 2011).
The small amount of organic cotton being produced for the market increases the
risk to the retailers if a region experiences a bad harvest. Patagonia Inc. has said they are
not large enough to sustain the organic cotton market and they need more buyers out
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there to increase growers (Reinhardt e al., 2003); which will help minimize the risk and
secure the market. Retailers should diversify the sources to mitigate the risk of the
depended output. Since organic cotton is grown in over 22 countries and the farming
plots are already small in size, a company should establish their producing sources
through region diversification (Textile Exchange, Cotton Briefing, 2011).
The unique ability for the retailer to communicate with the producer is an organic
cotton market advantage that reduces risk to the company. The organic market eliminates
the middleman and implements the practice of securing price with the producer, which
saves on cost (Textileexchange.org, 2014). This relationship between retailer and farmer
creates security and confidence by working with producers at an early stage, retailers can
communicate their requirements and requests directly and identify challenges sooner or
before they arise (TextileExchange.org, 2014).
Investors and retail companies have found the lack of standardized certification
and production information as an added risk. Organizations like the BCI and Textile
Exchange continually publish research to provide industry information and BCI is
developing a traceable system through documentation to accompany organic cotton as is
travels though the supply chain (Organic Cotton, 2013). Standardization to organic
certification has solidified in recent years due to the multiple organizations within the
industry due organization consolidating and expectations being established.
The organic cotton market has continually improved its transparency and
standardization of production. Increase in crop production and the geographical
separation secure availability. Presently, retailers can now see less risk and more
incentives to buy in the organic cotton market.
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3.47 Price and Organic Cotton Garments
The final price of an organic cotton garment is one of the most influential pieces
of the market system; finding the optimum price will find the sweet spot that encourages
the most purchases while simultaneously making the most profits. Consumers must find
the price appealing and justifiable to continue investing in the product spurring further
market growth.
Price is important to consumers and affects the sell-ability of the finished product.
The retail price of a finished organic cotton garment is one of the most critical facets.
Organic cotton can fetch a premium price of 10-50% more when commodities spike, but
the average premium is around 10% (Textile Exchange, Snap Shot, 2014). The final
organic cotton product costs about 5-10 percent more than conventional cotton, this
percentage can change based on the thickness and size of a sweatshirt compared to the
thinner smaller pair of underwear (Textile Exchange, Turkey, 2013). Currently the retail
sector is selling finished organic cotton garments for an average of 10-20% higher than
conventional cotton (Sathe & Crooke, 2010).
The retail cost is greatly influenced by the material used since it is responsible for
two-thirds of the cost; Patagonia says that 80% of the total cost is raw material (Beard,
2008). Price also has the additional challenge of facing extreme competition between
retailers, which causes prices to be continually pushed down (Illge & Preuss, 2012). This
exemplifies the importance of productions costs as they continue through the supply
chain onto the shelves competing with conventional cotton garments and where the
decisions lye in the hands of consumers.
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Retail pricing of organic cotton must be strategically priced to compete and
appeal to consumers while simultaneously profiting. Since organic cotton is a volatile
crop and can be costly to produce and the retailer is faced with the challenge of adjusting
the profit margin to the point where it will not dissuade the consumer from the purchase.
A majority of consumers are willing to pay 5-10% more for eco-fashion (Chan & Wong,
2012; Myers & Stolton, 1999; Niinimaki, 2010). Companies have trended towards the
strategy of taking a loss in the profit margin accompanied by adding a slight increase to
the price tag, which was successfully done by Patagonia (Patagonia, 2006). As the market
structure and sizes compare right now for organic cotton garments to become mainstream
the price of cotton garments should be comparable (Myers & Stolton, 1999).
3.48 Growth Analysis of Organic Cotton Market
The organic cotton market has grown significantly since it was developed in the
early 1990s. The outlook for organic cotton, as a niche market within the cotton
production industry, is projected to grow within the otherwise stagnant market. “Organic
cotton production has rebounded and provided hope for significant increases in organic
production.” (Rafiq, 2012). The organic garments and textiles produced in the cotton
market are insulated from global shocks to the economy due to its appeal to consumers
that are loyal to these eco-friendly products. The eco-fashion apparel industry is projected
to expand within the existing cotton market, due to increasing demand by consumers, and
organic cotton production will increase in order for supply levels to meet the demand.
“Figures provided by the Organic Trade Association in the 2004 Manufacturing
Survey show that the sale of organic cotton fiber grew by an estimated 22.7% over the
previous year. The market experienced a remarkable amount of growth of 2,000%
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between the years 2001-2010” (Textile Exchange, A Year in Review, 2013). This growth
in production has led to a growth in the organic cotton apparel and home textile industry,
which increased by 35% in 2009 grossing an estimated 4.3 billion dollars (Casabona,
2010).
Figure 10 .The global production of organic cotton from 2004-2012. Source: Truscott et al., 2013.
The demand for organic cotton garments continues to grow as more consumers
become aware of the environmental and social costs that occur throughout the supply
chain. In 2004, women’s organic cotton clothing sales increased by 33% (Claudio, 2007).
According to the Organic Cotton Exchange the market continues to show significant
expansion, as seen in Figure 11. “Global retail sales of organic cotton products grew 83%
in 2007 to US $1.9 billion, and 63% in 2008 to US $3.2 billion” (Sathe & Crooke, 2010).
The increase in consumer demand for organic agricultural goods has been described as
“particularly remarkable” by the Council of the European Union (2007). Currently the
global eco-fashion industry makes up 1% of the apparel industry, but it is predicted to
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double over the next five to ten years (Lipson, 2008). The market increase is contributed
to due increase in media coverage, companies’ greater social commitments, and growing
consumer awareness and environmental concerns (Lipson, 2008).
The increase in organic cotton production, and projected market growth, aligns
with the forecasted market trends for the entire eco-fashion industry that is seen in Figure
11. Growing consumer interest has promoted the organic cotton market growth by a rate
of 50% each year (Hulm, 2008). In 2009, the organic cotton apparel and textile industry
reached $4.9 billion dollars, a 35% increase from the prior year (Organic Trade
Association, 2014).
Figure 11. Global retail sales of organic cotton products. This graph encompasses all organic cotton
product sales i.e. clothes and linens. Source: Textile Exchange, A Year in Review, 2013.
Figure 12 displays the global conventional cotton production levels. It was
calculated by subtracting the organic cotton production (seen on Figure 10, provided by
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Truscott et al., 2013) from the total global cotton production data reported on the United
Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) website. The remaining production
data, less the organic cotton production numbers, reflects the conventional cotton
Fiber Production in Metric Tonnes
production levels within the cotton industry.
Global Conventional Cotton
Production
30000000
25000000
20000000
y = 44837x + 2E+07
15000000
10000000
5000000
0
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Figure 12. Global conventional cotton production. Data information from TextileExchange.org
and FAO.org
A comparison organic cotton graph was constructed to compare, see Figure 13. A
trend-line was added and the production output was adjusted to allow for a better visual
comparison. Comparing trend lines and the industry’s growth in the last decade shows
that growth favors the organic industry. The trend line for organic cotton production is
significantly steeper than convention.
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Global Organic Cotton Production
Fiber Production in Metric Tonnes
300000
250000
y = 22727x + 22831
200000
150000
100000
50000
0
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Figure 13. Global organic cotton production. Data information from TextileExchange.org
Figures 12 and 13 use market production data, which was analyzed over a tenyear period to show trends in production for conventional. The sharp decrease in
production for conventional cotton during 2008-2009 was due to the global economic
recession, which stifled consumer demand (Hudson et al., 2013). The fragile economies
of the developing countries where cotton production occurred, was devastated in the
communities relying on jobs in spinning mills, farms, and the other production sectors
(Page & Ritchie, 2009). Competition from grains, oilseed crops, and fluctuating exchange
rates in cotton exporting countries also contributed to the reduction in conventional
cotton production (Page & Ritchie, 2009).
The volume of conventional cotton production recovered in 2010 and cotton
farmers reemerged in the market at exponential rates due to the rising cost of cotton
demanded on the international market. “This surge in cotton prices was a result of
relative low cotton supply (approx. 22.3 million tons in 2009/10) after weak demand
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following the Great Recession and a strong increase of demand (approx. 25.5 million
tons) due to an upswing of global growth stimulated by expansionary fiscal and monetary
policy measures around the world” (Schindler, 2013). The price of cotton reached record
highs in the 2010-2011 and 2011-2012 growing seasons (Truscott et al., 2013).
The graph in Figure 14 shows future trends in the cotton market consisting of a
slight decrease in cotton prices over the next year, followed by relatively stagnant levels
in consumption, production, and cotton prices over the next five years. This market
prediction reflects the same conclusion as others, who claim a lack of technological
advancements in cotton production as the causing factor of stagnation (Hudson et al.,
2012; Rafiq, 2011). This conventional cotton market will experience a slight growth but
the stagnant, and possibly negative, trend line is due to the production growth not rising
at the same level as global GDP is predicted to rise due to inflation.
Figure 14. World cotton indicators. Cotton production and consumption comparison from 2009 to
2014 wih future projections to the year 2018. Source: Agbenyegah, 2014.
“In 2012/13, global cotton production is estimated down by 5% from 27.4 million
tons to 26 million tons and projected to drop another 9% to 24 million tons in 2013/14”
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(ICAC, 2013). Future projections estimate a growth rate of 2.8% from present till 2022,
which is below the 3.7% growth rate experienced from 1995 till 2008 (Hudson et al.,
2012). Productivity levels of conventionally harvested cotton are also projected to
decrease from 2012 to 2023, growing by 0.5% per year, which “is lower than the longterm average yield gain of 1.43%” (Hudson et al., 2012). For the next few years the
projected outlook of conventional cotton is overall stagnant due to a weaker global
economy and developed countries narrowing their output gaps and deficits. For the next
few years, countries are expected to reduce their excess cotton stocks and consumption is
projected to remain constant. Overall, conventional cotton production has plateaued and
faces the future economic challenges with vanishing resources. Companies potentially
face a disastrous future if they continue to capitalize on primarily conventionally
produced cotton products (Hudson, et al., 2012).
Figure 12 shows higher trends of growth in productivity within the organic cotton
market than what is seen in total cotton production growth trends. This has resulted in an
increased level of total global cotton production consisting of organically harvested
crops. Organic cotton production increased by 20% in the 2007-2008 growing season, but
experienced a significant drop in production the following year. The drop in cotton
production occurred due to the decrease in production in India, which “reduced seed
availability and, importantly, increased regulatory systems such as the TraceNet,
implemented by the Government of India” (https://www.icac.org/wpcontent/uploads/2012/08/_review_june_2011.pdf). India is the largest producer of
organic cotton, and increased regulatory conditions in the organic market, as well as
climatic conditions causing crop failures created this anomaly. The difference was a
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result from extreme weather from hail to droughts (Organic Trade Association, 2014).
Organic cotton production has rebounded since then and has consistently shown
significant growth levels above the levels seen in the total global cotton production
market.
Diminishing production levels in conventional cotton is shifting consumer
demand towards other alternative products, and organic cotton needs to be promoted as
the most responsible and ideal replacement. Countries in West Africa doubled their
production levels of organic cotton production in 2007-2008 “as a result of the strong
demand for organic cotton at the world level… the purchase price is interesting for
producers (around 30% higher than that of traditional cotton)” (Agritrade, 2008).
This research indicates that organic cotton is an emerging niche product within
the eco-fashion industry and significant growth is needed to reduce the large drops in
production levels like the one that occurred in 2009. As global organic cotton production
levels increase to meet the increasing levels of consumer demand the market volatility of
the product will decrease.
3.5 Consumer Behavior
Consumer behavior is influenced by multiple influential factors that provide a
difficult and complex approach to identify. Diverse personalities, motivational factors,
demographics, personal accountability and other internal and external factors need to be
explored in order to research what drives a consumer to specific purchasing decisions. In
an attempt to understand what drives a consumer decision-making, I compiled data from
previous research in order to identify trends and commonalities that exist within the
existing research. This comprehensive analysis provides an interdisciplinary approach
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that can provide further insight into the influential factors that drive consumer retail
garment purchasing decisions.
The increasing amount of research about what motivates consumer-purchasing
decisions can provide areas of focus and increase the efficiency of marketing strategies
for the retail garment industry in order to maximize sales. “The question remains whether
green-thinking consumers … will embrace apparel consumption patterns that limit or
reduce the pace of fashion change or adopt other purchase preferences that put less strain
on the environment” (Kim & Damhorst, 1998). Eco-fashion companies need to adjust
marketing strategies to target the areas of focus that are identified in the research
regarding consumer purchasing behaviors.
3.51 Why We Consume Fashion
“Fashion merges us with our emotional needs; it expresses our inner individual
personality by external marks and symbols, brands and status items” (Niimimaki, 2010).
Personal fulfillment influences fashion purchases and shopping itself can act as a way for
individuals to actively participate within society while acquiring tangible items that shape
individual identities and their perceived lifestyles. This need to create an individual
“brand” through garment purchases propels consumers to shop for clothing based on
current trends, designs, and styles, rather than necessity. Previous research has shown
that consumers make purchase decisions based on a need to express their identity, rather
than necessity, which is what retail companies in the fast-fashion industry capitalize on
when producing garments. These companies are producing low priced low quality
disposable garments for individuals that want to stay fashionable and up to date on the
current trends and styles (Niinimaki, 2010).
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“Consumption includes two kinds of function(s) when answering to a person’s
needs, targets and values: the consumer can try to achieve individual or collective
benefits by consuming” (Niinimaki, 2010). Ethical purchasing decisions are made with
others in mind, while individual purchasing decisions reflect a buyers own personal
desires. Ethical purchasing decisions are selfless, while individual purchasing decisions
are selfish. There is a significant amount of research that focuses on consumer
purchasing behaviors, and this paper attempts to identify the specific influential factors
that drive eco-conscious consuming (Niinimaki, 2010).
3.52 History of Fashion Consumption
Prior to World War I garments were elaborately constructed and custom designed
for the individual (Strasser, 1999). These garments were worn for years, repaired when
needed, and passed down to other family members. Once an article of clothing was worn
out it would be recycled into quilts or used as rags (Strasser, 1999). During the war
available resources became limited, which influenced clothing companies to change
production strategies. These changes focused on reducing wasted resources, streamlining
finished garments by reducing sizes, and providing a more uniform non-customizable
clothing standard (Strasser, 1999).
This shift reduced the costs of production for clothing companies through
technological and methodological advances such as improved technological efficiencies,
out-sourcing, and increased levels of management over the textile industry (Nordas,
2004; Strasser, 1999). These changes to the garment industry were initially made to
support the country during war, but this shift in the industry also altered individual
consumer concepts about their clothing choices, as well as the current trends, styles,
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prices, and quality of clothing. Clothing changed from an heirloom quality item that
consumers would make last, to disposable items that need to be updated with current
trends and styles (Morgan & Birtwistle, 2009).
3.53 Current Fashion Consumption Trend
The fast-fashion industry emerged in the garment industry from the development
of low priced low quality disposable clothing. The emergence of the fast-fashion clothing
industry model is responsible for increasing levels of resource consumption, waste
disposal, and environmental degradation. Developed wealthy western nations have
embraced the irresponsible practices associated with the fast-fashion industry in order to
keep up with current trends, so consumers can stay fashionable without breaking the
bank.
Fast-fashion is a newly emerging market within the ready-to-wear industry,
producing trendy clothing at very affordable prices (Claudio, 2007). These fashions can
be designed, produced, and placed on the retail floor within as little as two weeks
(Morgan & Birtwistle, 2009). The fast-fashion industry is profitable due to the high levels
of sales on low priced bulk production garments, which reduce costs by outsourcing
production to developing countries, and the reliance companies have on consumer
behavioral trends showing consistent impulsive purchasing decisions (Illge & Preuss,
2012; Morgan & Birtwistle, 2009).
“Girls especially are insatiable when it comes to fashion. They have to have the
latest thing, always. And since it is cheap, you buy more of it. ‘Our closets are full’
Mayra Diaz a mother of a ten year old girl living in New York” stated (Claudio, 2007).
These affordable must-have trends that change with each season promote an
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inconsequential and irresponsible disposable attitude for consumers who throw out last
season’s clothing to make room for their new stylish garments (Claudio, 2007). This
“cheap-chic” fashion model appeals to teenagers by allowing them to continually wear
something new and trendy (Mintel, 2007; Keynote, 2008).
In 2006, Oakdene Hollins published the report “Recycling of Low Grade Clothing
Waste,” that addressed the increase in the national wardrobe sizes (Claudio, 2007). The
fast-fashion industry makes up one-fifth of the garment market in the United Kingdom
(Morgan & Birtwistle, 2009). The increased wardrobe sizes are a product of the
materialistic overconsumption mentality that has emerged in developed wealthy nations.
More fabric is needed to produce these plus sized garments that are thrown out at the end
of the season increasing the total volume of garments that eventually end up in the solid
waste stream (Claudio, 2007). In the United Kingdom more than 1,000,000,000 kg of
textiles are sent to the landfill each year. According to the EPA Office of Solid Waste,
Americans, on average, dispose of sixty-eight pounds of clothing annually per person,
making up 5% of the municipal solid waste which, collectively, adds up to 8 billion
pounds per year (Claudio, 2007; Solomon & Rabolt, 2004). A study conducted by the
Environmental Committee, found that the global volume of discarded textile waste has
increased from 7% to 30% in the last five years (Poulter, 2008; Shields, 2008).
The fashion industry promotes the production of new inevitably soon to be
obsolete articles of clothing that end up in landfills once the next season beings (Kim &
Damhorst, 1998). “Being fashionable and being environmentally concerned appear to be
in direct conflict” (Solomon & Rabolt, 2004). This increasing amount of production and
consumption is alarming, and is one of many reasons that sales and marketing need to
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increase for organically produced cotton garments. The fashion industry needs to
transition out of the disposable fast-fashion market, which is something that needs to be
emphasized at fundamental consumer behavioral levels. Sustainable farming practices
also need to be implemented and promoted in order to dampen the environmental impact
from the fast-fashion industry, while still encouraging fashion companies to be
environmentally and ecologically responsible.
As society evolves fashion reflects the values and social movements (Bauman,
1996). The fashion industry is a vehicle of social regulation and social pressure (Beard,
2008). The eco-fashion industry emerged in the 1990s during the green movement which
focused on environmentally responsible practices that introduced consumers to new
organically produced cotton garments. This environmental consumerism is attributed to
social movements that promote individual responsibility and awareness (Kim &
Damhorst, 1998; Lin, 2010).
The expression of an individual identity through clothing styles and designs has
provided an outlet for environmentally and ecologically motivated consumers to promote
their individuality, sustainable lifestyle decisions, and ethical responsibility through
garment purchases. Ethical clothing purchases are made by consumers by weighing two
internal values. These two internal values are ‘me’, which “works as a guide to
environmental concerns and the ‘I’ addresses needs for vanity, beauty and
newness…Therefore, the change in clothing, styles, and fashion is unavoidable, and
manufacturers and effective marketing systems maintain this change process in
contemporary society…the main driver for change is the consumers’ desires, not guilt”
(Niinimaki, 2010). Since society is what drives industry changes, consumer behavior
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within the society is what needs to be focused on in order to initiate change within the
fashion industry. Rather than focusing on consumer guilt in order to coerce them to make
responsible eco-fashion purchasing decisions, organic cotton companies need to develop
clothing and brands that are desired by the consumer. A shift in consumer demand to
environmentally friendly products will force the industry to change in order to meet their
needs.
3.54 Consumer Influences
Individual personalities and consumer demographics provide diverse and complex
populations that make purchasing decisions based on multiple internal and external
influential factors. The compilation of data analyzed in this paper focuses on research
collected from developed wealthy nations where environmental responsibility is
increasing for consumers. Demographics including nationality, religion, culture,
geographical location, age, and ethics are some of the factors that alter the level of
importance for issues that may guide a purchasing decision. “Germans value ‘taste’ and
‘quality’ more highly, whereas British consumers see ‘healthiness’ and ‘not genetically
modified’ as the main characteristics” (said by Ochoa, 2011) for the main reason guiding
their purchasing decisions.
“Clothing and fashion consumption converge strongly with construction of self
and one’s own individuality, in order to express deeply one’s own personality, such as
ethical values and aesthetic preference” (Niimimaki, 2010). Eco-fashion consumerism
studies provide conflicting data, which can be partially explained by where the study was
conducted, the demographics of the sample population, and consumer individuality.
Comprehensive broad market analysis, as well as targeted consumer behavioral analysis
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both need to be conducted in order to identify both related and conflicting influential
trends and factors that guide consumer-purchasing behaviors. This multilateral
interdisciplinary approach helps predict and manipulate the future trends within the
garment industry. Understanding what drives consumer behavior will assist in increasing
the span, in both production and size, of the organic cotton market.
3.541 Internal Influences
This study identifies internal influential factors that guide consumer-purchasing
decisions as key demographics for specific identifiable personality types. Behavioral
disorders, such as compulsive and addictive shopping habits, are considered as anomalies
that are removed from the research as outliers that would alter trends and relationships
within the population. Understanding and identifying different personality types provides
a way to observe, compartmentalize, and quantify consumers within the market in order
to analyze data.
3.5411 Committed Consumer
Consumers making garment purchases seldom consider the environmental
responsibility and ethical standards due to the lack of transparency in the industry and a
compartmentalized and disconnected supply chain (Chan, 2012). Consumers purchasing
the garment at the retail store usually do not consider the production of the garment, and
do not see the environmental impact of this production, because this occurs in distant
poor developing regions (Butler & Francis, 1997). This out of site out of mind mentality
does not reflect that of the committed consumer, or ‘ethical hardliner.’ The committed
consumer represents a small percentage of consumers who are willing to prioritize ethical
responsibilities over aesthetics when making their purchasing decisions (Niinimaki, 2010;
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Myers & Stolton, 1999). This eco-conscious group makes up an estimated 5-10% of all
consumers, but there are “increasingly more consumers are looking for various green
products in the market” (Lin, 2010).
Someone who makes a purchase based on ethics is considered an ethical
commitment consumer. Some of these people make purchasing decisions based on
environmental responsibility, but individual ethics do not always equate to environmental
responsibility. Ethics based purchasing decisions may be dictated by social
responsibility, religious values, or other individual causes. Environmental responsibility
is becoming an increasingly important influential factor in consumer purchasing
decisions. The “Wall Street Journal” reported that 8 out of 10 consumers surveyed
considered themselves environmentalists, and 10-15% of consumers identified as living
“a fully committed green lifestyle,” which is above previously reported levels over the
past ten years (Hanas, 2007; Ottman & Martin, 2009). Individual studies from both
Connolly (2008) and Haanpaa (2007) came to the same conclusion that green purchasing
decisions were influenced by individual personality types and contextual factors which
all related back to individual associated identities. A green consumer lives a different
lifestyle and purchases in a responsible and self-aware way (Moisander & Pesonen,
2002).
Individuals identifying themselves as environmentalists, in theory, would not
contribute to the fast-fashion industry because the environmentally irresponsible behavior
promoted by the fast-fashion industry would contradict the fundamental ideals of the
environmentalist (Solomon & Ranbolt, 2004). Consumer behavioral surveys regarding
environmentally responsible and ethical purchasing decisions do not necessarily reflect
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the true influencing factors of consumer behavior within the garment industry. When
faced with questions about ethics and environmental responsibility guiding consumer
purchasing decisions, consumers often lie about what truly guides their decisions. It
requires a significant level of honesty, awareness, and willingness to accept responsibility
for someone to admit, even when it is anonymous, that they make purchases based on
factors such as price and convenience over ethical and environmental responsibility.
Increasingly consumers are voicing their concern with the “ethical impact” of their
garment’s production yet still continually support the trend setting fast-fashion companies
that support cheap disposable practices (Beard, 2008).
The Pesticide Action Network (PAN) reported that consumers made purchasing
decisions most often based on ethical production standards, followed by product quality,
and least often based on environmentally responsible practices (Ochoa, 2011). Research
has shown that ethics is often not a significant influential factor for consumers (Joergens,
2006). Studies have shown that consumers are often not willing to compromise
convenience for ethics when making a purchasing decision (Carrigan & Attala, 2001).
Consumption levels and research has shown that consumers will make ethical purchasing
decisions if there is no added cost to price, quality, or conveniences (Carrigan & Attalla,
2001; Joergens, 2006).
3.5412 Health Conscious Consumer
The health conscious consumer is another group that has shown interest and
willingness to purchase organic cotton garments. Consumers that are focused on living
healthy lifestyles often seek out organically produced items including food and clothing
(Lin, 2010). This demographic is drawn to products that limit their exposure to
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potentially harmful chemicals, including the pesticides and chemicals used in
conventional cotton production.
The health conscious consumer bases their purchasing decision on what product is
least harmful to their health regardless of the price, quality, or other external influential
factor (Myers & Stolton, 1999). These people are aware of the negative environmental
impact from the production of garments, and are willing to pay more for organically
produced items, not because they reduce pollution, but because the product is less likely
to negatively affect their health (Conscience, 2013; Lin, 2010). Often health conscious
consumers are also environmentally responsible consumers who are motivated to make
eco-fashion purchases to reduce their risks of health problems as well as protecting the
environment (Niinimaki, 2010; Yan et al., 2012). Increased transparency in garment
production is extremely important in order to provide awareness to these potential
customers. Once a health conscious consumer is aware of the possible negative health
risks, they become loyal organic cotton users that are not detracted by price premiums.
“Consumers in the food sector show more commitment in ethical consumption
since food directly affects consumer health and their choice reflects a benefit to them”
(Chan & Wong, 2012). A study by Levi’s Corporation found that consumers who
purchase organic food understand what organic labels signify, and that purchasing
organically produced garments reduces environmental pollutants that harm the
environment and impact their food supplies (Ross, 2006). “As consumers are aware of
what’s going on in the food industry, it transfers over to us” (Wilson, 2004). “The degree
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of organic food consumption of the responders is directly proportional to the aspirations
of enhancing their quality of life and the desire to purchase clothing free of pesticides”
(Ochoa, 2011).
Health conscious consumers are often willing to pay more for organic cotton
garments once they are aware of the environmental impact that non-organically produced
clothing has on the environment (Casadesus-Masanell et. al, 2009). The qualitative
analysis, by Joergens in 2006, concluded that consumers who placed a significant level of
importance on purchasing organic food did so because the reduced risk of health
problems from chemical additives. These consumers did not initially consider or identify
any direct health benefits from purchasing organically produced garments. Transparency
and awareness needs to be emphasized in order to change the mindset of consumers when
purchasing clothing (Petit, 2007). Ochoa (2011) found that women between 20-25 years
old who purchased small to medium quantities of organic food displayed a higher than
average willingness to also purchase organic cotton clothing.
Organic cotton clothing companies may have greater success target marketing
strategies to appeal to the health conscious consumer in order to increase consumer
demand. There is a significant amount of consumers within this demographic that
currently do not make eco-fashion purchases, simply because they have not considered
any health risks or benefits when purchasing clothing. The committed consumer is the
demographic that currently is responsible for the majority of organic cotton sales, and
targeted marketing towards them would not provide high levels of growth within the
industry. Marketing strategies focusing on supply chain transparency, consumer
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education, and health could drastically expand the customer base and demand for the
organic cotton market.
3.5413 Sympathetic Consumer & Casual Consumer
The sympathetic consumer and casual consumer are the two groups that are least
likely to purchase organic cotton garments. The sympathetic consumer may purchase an
eco-fashion garment based on a concern for the environment, but the casual consumer
will not make a purchasing decision based solely on environmental concerns (Myers &
Stolton, 1999). Out of these two groups the casual consumer provides the largest
demographic that can potentially be targeted in order to increase organic cotton sales.
These customers are influenced by clothing attributes such as price, quality, design
appeal, fit, and comfort. As stated earlier in this paper consumers have been shown to be
motivated by desires more than they are by guilt, and rather than organic cotton
companies appealing to environmental issues, they can alter their product to meet the
desires of the casual customer. Creating a high quality product that is trendy, welltailored, and reasonably priced is the way to attract potential customers within this market
(Myers & Stolton, 1999).
3.5414 Demographic Factors
Demographics have been identified and their relationship with consumer behavior
have been thoroughly researched and written about. The main demographics that are
observed are geographical location, education level, gender, and income levels. Age and
gender have been consistently identified as the most significant demographics relating to
consumer purchasing decisions. Race is often studied as another demographic important
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to consumer purchasing behavior, but research has consistently shown no empirical
evidence that supports racial factors relating to consumer purchasing decisions.
Consumer shopping behaviors that have been observed have shown different
influential factors based on their gender. Research has shown that women make
purchasing decisions based on environmental and social responsibility, and are willing to
spend more money on these eco-fashion products (Laroche, Bergeron, & Barbaro-Forleo,
2001). Women have expressed concerns regarding environmental conservation when
making their eco-fashion purchases (Wilson, 2004). This finding is encouraging for
predicting trends in the organic cotton market since the majority of consumers in the
garment industry consist of women.
The largest demographic group of consumers of fast-fashion garments is made up
of the youth population. High school aged consumers place a high level of importance on
up to date fashion trends which make them the target demographic for the fast fashion
industry (Martin & Bush, 2000). A study conducted by Butler and Francis identified less
environmental concerns influencing eco-fashion purchasing decisions in older consumers
than younger participants in the study. Consumer age is important in order to identify
marketing strategies, locations, and projected success levels. Consumer behavior in ecofashion purchases seems to be of little concern to younger consumers that are more
focused on trendiness, but this level shifts once these consumers reach college ages. At
this point consumers show the highest level of environmental activism, awareness, and
responsibility which influences their eco-fashion purchases. These influential factors
become less significant with increased ages of survey participants.
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The Generation Y college students indicated a high level of social awareness in a
study conducted by Alloy Media and Marketing in 2006. A conflicting study conducted
by Yan, Hyllegard, and Blaesi in 2012 reported lower environmental responsibility
influencing clothing purchases among college aged participants. The conflicting data is
most likely a result of geographical or cultural differences, income levels, or other
demographic disparities. Garlick and Langley (2001) reported that young adults were
willing to pay a premium for eco-fashion products, which was contrary to the results
reported in a different study conducted 3 years later (Cone Inc., 2006; D’Souza, 2004;
Hanas, 2007). The lack of consistency among the data provides insight into the
differences in the level of influence certain factors have based on demographics.
Income level has not shown to be a demographic that influences consumerpurchasing decisions. The only significant finding regarding income and consumer
purchasing decisions in eco-fashion was reported by, Cone & Roper in a consumer
behavior report released in 2002. The findings in the report identified a significant level
of importance placed on social responsibility influencing purchasing decisions for
consumers that were working women, white-collar employees, and affluent consumers
(Solomon & Rabolt, 2004).
3.542 External Influences
Tangible and intangible qualities of a garment such as “packaging, color, price,
quality, brand, even service level and reputation of the seller” (as said by Chen & Wei,
2012) are some of the external influencing factors for consumers purchasing eco-fashion
products. An organic cotton garment provides tangible attributes such as comfort and
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health as well as intangible satisfaction the consumer gets from supporting environmental
conservation efforts (Chen & Wei, 2012).
The main external influencing factors can be categorized as store related
attributes, garment related attributes, and environmental attributes (Chan and Wong,
2010). Factors identified in related research that influence consumer purchasing
behaviors, such as convenience, marketing, brand reputation, and design, can be
organized into their respective categories identified by Chan and Wong. Being able to
normalize and categorize these factors provides a template that can be used in order to
measure and analyze data from separate studies in order to identify significant trends and
correlations spanning across multiple studies.
3.5421 Store-Related Attributes
Convenience, customer service, brand reputation, store design, atmosphere, and
the company’s ethical reputation are the main influential store-related attributes that form
a brand (Chan & Wong, 2005). Although e-commerce is a successful and convenient
method for retail garment sales, physical retail stores are necessary to reach multiple
demographics. Retail stores provide an opportunity for a company to design a sales
environment with a navigable store layout, pleasant atmosphere, enhanced customer
service, and fitting rooms for customers to try on clothing. Marketing strategies and
consumer awareness plans can be implemented within the aspects of a store in order to
improve the brand reputation and eco-fashion purchases (Beard, 2008; Chan & Wong,
2012). Chan and Wong (2012) surveyed shoppers at a mall in Hong Kong and found that
the store-related attributes can have a significant influence on consumer eco-fashion
purchasing decisions.
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Beard (2008) reported that consumer-purchasing decisions are heavily influenced
when shopping in a retail store. The store is saturated with marketing campaigns, product
images, brand and clothing information, and pleasant shopping atmospheres created with
music and employees providing high levels of customer service. Physical retail stores are
not always as convenient as online shopping, but they provide an environment that
companies can actively engage customers in order to achieve their sales and marketing
goals (Beard, 2008). There are pros and cons regarding convenience in both online and
physical retail stores. It is always nice to be able to purchase something in the comfort of
your own home, but if the customer purchases an item that is the wrong size having the
ability to exchange the item at a physical location is extremely convenient. Additionally
this inconvenient fitting problem would not happen if customers were able to try on the
clothing prior to purchase.
3.5422 Garment Related Attributes
Garment related attributes such as the design of the garment, style, quality, fit and
price have shown to be the most significant influencing factor for consumers when
purchasing clothing (Chan & Wong, 2012). The price of organic cotton clothing has
consistently presented as an issue for consumers considering purchasing an eco-fashion
product. “Price and style are dominant factors” when customers consider purchasing
organic cotton products (Niinimaki, 2010).
Clothing related attributes are considered much more often with consumers when
making an eco-fashion purchase than whether or not the purchase is socially and
environmentally responsible (Solomon & Rabolt, 2004). Participants in a survey
conducted by Carrigan and Boulstridge admitted that the price, value, and quality of a
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garment influenced their purchasing decisions more than societal concerns (Carrigan &
Attalla, 2001).
Joergens reported in 2006, consumer personal needs were the primary
consideration when deciding which garment to purchase. Customers poled at Walmart
concluded that “consumers are not willing to pay more for environmentally friendly
products unless they perceived direct personal benefits” (Sathe & Crooke, 2010). The
findings from the Walmart poll reported that consumers prioritized their purchasing
decisions based first on clothing style, then price, and finally color and whether the
product was sustainably produced or not (Sathe & Crooke, 2010). “They want it to be a
good design, they want it at a reasonable price, then they look at the fiber aspect”
(Wilson, 2004).
According to Cotton Incorporated (2008) they have reported that the concern for
the cost of apparel has increased among consumers, and the concern for whether a
garment is environmentally friendly has reduced in importance. Cost is a hindrance for
consumers, and often organic and environmentally friendly products cost more (Yan et
al., 2012). In England, customers stated that they wanted products that were
environmentally friendly, but when these products were introduced, they were not
purchased due to the higher prices (Pearce, 1990). Eco-fashion consumers that have
shown an interest in purchasing organic cotton garments have also shown a willingness to
pay a price premium of up to 10% or more for these products (Chan & Wong, 2012;
Myers & Stolton, 1999; Roberts & Bacon, 1997). Organic cotton garments are considered
an emerging niche product that is commonly sold at a higher price than their
conventionally produced counterparts. If eco-fashion companies were able to reduce
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costs and release an organically produced textile at a comparable price to conventional
garments, the level of sustainable and responsible cotton production in the garment
industry would exponentially increase.
3.5423 Environmental Attributes
The environmental impact that a garment has throughout production can be
measured by the level of water consumption needed for garment production, levels of
pollution, sustainable (or unsustainable) manufacturing methods, and levels of energy
usage throughout the supply chain. Consumer awareness and activism that is demanding
environmental sustainability and responsibility is increasing in the garment industry. The
increase can be seen in significant positive correlations in data analysis between
environmental attributes and both store and garment related attributes.
Multiple studies have identified significant influences on consumer purchasing
decisions stemming from environmental awareness and concerns (Butler & Francis,
1997; Ogle, Hyllegard, & Dunbar, 2004; Hawley 2006; Birtwistle & Moore, 2007;
Staikos & Rahimifard, 2007). Consumers that have expressed a willingness to pay more
for organic cotton garments are aware of the negative environmental impacts that
conventionally produced garments cause from chemicals introduced during conventional
harvests (Lin, 2010).
Additional research, consumer education, public awareness campaigns, and
targeted marketing strategies need to be implemented in order to initiate a significant
change in the cotton industry. A multilateral approach appealing to consumer desires
while simultaneously increasing awareness needs to be developed in order to maximize
future organic cotton garment sales. This increase in consumer demand will force
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conventional fast-fashion clothing companies to transition to long-term sustainable
business models that appease the environmental concerns from consumers.
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Chapter Four
METHODS & DATA ANALYSIS OF SEATTLE CONSUMR BEHAVIOR
4.1 Introductions
The study designed and reported in this paper is to gain insight into consumer
behavior regarding the motivating factors in clothing purchases in order to assess and
improve the organic cotton garment industry. The survey conducted in this paper focuses
on the retail end product sector of the organic cotton production supply chain. Focusing
on the consumer demand provides insight into what drives garment purchases, which can
help identify ways to maximize industry growth.
This survey was conducted from a small sample population from consumers that
reside in Seattle. The demographic in Seattle consists of consumers that are known to be
progressive, environmentally conscious, with an above average income. Organic cotton
garments are considered a niche product that is purchased by environmentally conscious,
progressive, and informed consumers. The Seattle Demographic sample population is the
ideal control group to use in order to provide further insight into purchasing decisions
that will assist in future marketing strategies and areas to focus on in order to increase
sales and demand for organic cotton garments.
4.2 Designing the Survey
The survey questions were modeled from a survey written by Ting-Yan Chan and
Christina W.Y. Wong (2005) in “The consumption side of sustainable fashion supply
chain.” This survey was used as a baseline model for the one conducted for this paper
because it provided clear and concise questions that identify different attributes in a
buyer’s decision-making process. The survey focused on consumer purchasing behaviors
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associated with store attributes, environmental attributes, and garment attributes. These
attributes are the key influential consumer decision-making factors in the targeted
demographic.
Another influential source was the survey conducted and published by Ruoh-Nan
Yan, Karen H. Hyllegard and LaVon F. Blaesi that explored consumer behavior and
attitudes towards marketing. Their questionnaire used a Likert-type survey with questions
regarding brand reputation and price premiums. The level of importance of these two
factors was discussed in their analysis and embodied in their survey. There has been a
considerable amount of research conducted regarding brand reputation and price
premiums, because these are factors that can be adjusted accordingly in order to
maximize sales.
The survey developed for this paper was given to a sample population consisting
of 94 people who are residents of the greater Seattle Metropolitan Area. The questions
were delivered to the participants through targeted social media campaigns and personto-person data collection. These collection methods helped to ensure a diverse group of
consumer participants spanning different socio-economic classes. A Multi-Response
Permutation Procedural (MRPP) analysis was conducted with PC-ORD software and a
Bonferroni Correction was made to counteract the problems that arise from multivariate
comparisons. Additional trends and behaviors were observed when plotting, graphing,
and charting the various compilations of individual variables.
4.21 Participants
The participants that took the survey were Seattle residents covering a wide range
in age. Out of the 94 people who took the survey 64% (60) were women, 34% (32) were
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men, and the remaining 2% (2) chose not to disclose their gender. The Seattle population
is very different from the previous demographics within populations where studies have
been conducted that observe consumer behavior. Previous research has focused on
college students, or consumers in various large international cities including London and
Hong Kong. There is limited data regarding consumer behavior within the garment
industry focusing on consumers that reside in the United States.
The residents of the city of Seattle provide an ideal demographic to target for this
study due to the reputation for consumers who are environmentally conscious, health
oriented, and have an above average income per capita level within the United States.
The Seattle Demographic sample population is the ideal control group to use in order to
provide further insight into purchasing decisions that will assist in future marketing
strategies and areas to focus on in order to increase sales and demand for organic cotton
garments.
The city of Seattle is located between the Olympic and Cascade mountain ranges
and is bordered to the west by the Puget Sound. The easy access to hiking, kayaking, and
other outdoor activities increases the level of ecological awareness for residents. Lin
(2010) found that residents of Hawaii were more likely to buy organic products due to
their heightened level of awareness of environmental issues and sustainability that
stemmed from their island location and limited access to resources. “Researchers suggest
that people who actively enjoy and invest in outdoor experiences, such as consumers of
Patagonia’s products, will pay more than average American consumers” (CasadesusMasanell et al., 2009). Researching targeted demographics focusing on consumers that
are likely to purchase organic products will maximize the potential market growth by
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altering sales strategies based on consumer purchasing decisions observed and identified
during the survey process.
4.22 Site Description
The active solicitation for in person participation of the survey was completed in
the downtown area of Seattle, within a 3 block by 5 block area (Figure 15). The survey
solicitation zone boundaries were Union to the South, Pine to the North, 1st St. to the
West, and 6th St. to the East. This area was chosen because of the diversity of consumers
due to the large quantity of retail chains, high-end department stores, boutiques, outdoor
recreation stores, and malls. Several of the clothing stores offered organic cotton garment
products, including Gap, Nordstrom’s, and H&M.
Figure 15. Map of downtown Seattle. This is a map of the downtown shopping area of Seattle where all
the surveys that were conducted face-to-face were gathered. Source: Google Earth.
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4.23 Measures
The initial section of the survey consisted of five multiple choice questions used
to identify specific key demographics including, age, gender, whether or not participants
had children, their annual income and education level (Figure 16). There was no question
regarding the participant’s race due to the lack of empirical evidence that race has any
effect on a consumer’s garment decision-making process.
Figure 16. Demographic questions. These are the five demographic questions asked on the survey
distributed to Seattle shoppers.
The next section of the survey consists of questions regarding clothing attributes
that were extrapolated from questions that were used in a previous study conducted by
Chan and Christina W.Y. Wong. There are three sections that contain five questions each
utilizing a Likert-type ranking system from one to five with one being not important and
five representing very important. The questions modeled after Chan and Wong’s survey
focus on price, quality, and garment design. Two additional questions were added to the
survey conducted for this paper regarding the fit of the garment, and current trends within
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the retail garment industry. There is a considerable amount of evidence supporting the
notion that consumers make purchasing decisions based on how well the garment fits.
The results of this survey support this with 87 out of 93 respondents stating that the fit of
a garment is important to very important.
70
Clothing Attributes: How well the
Garment Fits
60
Responses
50
40
1 being Not important
and 5 being vey
important
30
20
10
0
1
2
3
4
Degree of Importance
5
Figure 17. Seattle consumers ranking the importance of garment fit.
The question regarding current trends within the retail garment industry was
added due to evidence from other studies that show a correlation between purchasing
decisions based on clothing trends. A consumer behavior study in 1983 developed the
Roger’s theory, which identifies five different types of consumers. The five consumers
are the innovators (2.5%), the early adopters (13.5%), the early majority (34%), the late
majority (34%), and the laggards (16%) (Rogers, 2003). Previous studies have shown that
women frequently make clothing purchases based on current trends, rather than the need
for new clothing (Beaudoin et al., 2003). It is important that companies developing
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organic cotton garments focus on current trends in order to increase sales and stimulate
additional growth in the industry.
Figure 18. The five questions on the survey within the clothing attributes section.
The next section of the survey focuses on clothing store relates attributes (SRA), and the
importance of the reputation of specific brands. Studies have shown that “brand names
offer associations and meanings to consumers in such a way that they become part of an
individual’s knowledge structure” (Bao, Shao, & Rivers, 2008). “According to a recent
Cone/Roper survey of two thousand American adults, 80 percent form more positive
images of a company that they know supports causes of importance to them. In addition,
two thirds say they would switch brands or retailers and would pay more for the product,
and indicate that they have a greater trust in companies linked to good causes” (Solomon
& Rabolt, 2004). Brand reputation is an important influential factor that guides
consumers towards their purchasing decisions.
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Figure 19. The five questions on the survey within the store attributes section. This section of the
survey asks the participant to rank the degree of importance for each of the five individual question’s
pertaining to store-related attributes.
The next section of the survey focuses on the level of importance regarding
environmental attributes of garment production to the consumer. These questions are
designed to quantify the value a consumer places on the environment and their garment
as they relate to each other. The questions in this section were designed based on
Pearson’s (2006) five key components that define sustainability and environmental
effects of cotton production.
Figure 20. Questions within the survey relating to environmental attributes. This section of the survey
asks the participant to rank the degree of importance for each of the five individual questions pertaining to
their environmental concern.
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Store Attributes: Brand's
Environmentally Friendly Practices
30
Responses
25
20
15
1 being Not important
and 5 being very
important
10
5
0
1
2
3
4
Degree of Importance
5
Figure 21. Seattle consumers ranking of a brand’s environmentally friendly practices. This graph
shows the responses to the question asking the participant to rank the importance of a brand’s
environmentally friendly practices. The majority of the responses vary from neutral to somewhat important.
The final question of the survey was a multiple choice question asking the
participant how much more they would be willing to pay for organic cotton clothing. This
question has been asked in multiple studies, and the data from this study can be used to
compare the Seattle consumer responses to consumers in other markets. Results of this
survey question will assist in providing insight into whether Seattle consumers provide
the appropriate market for eco-fashion industries to target.
Figure 22. Price premium question.
4.24 Procedures
Multiple approaches were utilized to find survey participants that reside in the
greater Seattle metropolitan area. There were a total of ninety-six surveys completed,
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fifty-eight were filled out in person utilizing active solicitation methods, and thirty-six
surveys were completed online accessed from social media websites.
The active solicitation of survey participants was conducted over a weeklong
period starting on January 3rd, 2014 in downtown Seattle. An assistant and I solicited
people walking by to complete the survey and made sure to not target any specific
demographic. The only guideline was that they had to reside in Seattle. Thirty surveys
were filled out on the first day that it was conducted. Over the week, the remaining
twenty-eight surveys were completed by soliciting employees and customers at various
retail stores, banks, and restaurants.
The thirty-six surveys that were filled out online were competed using an online
form that was created and accessed utilizing Survey Monkey. I utilized social media to
solicit Seattle residents to complete the survey, and the majority of the participation came
from an online social media group for public safety workers in the Seattle Area. This
group was made up of 172 total members consisting of firefighters, emergency
dispatchers, and police officers. The online survey was available for participation for one
week starting on January 4th, 2014.
4.25 Hypothesis Development
Previous research regarding consumer behavior has identified areas that influence
consumer-purchasing decisions, and this information was used as a guide to identify the
focus of the statistical analysis. The research focused on store related attributes, garment
attributes, and environmental attributes affecting the consumer purchasing decisions,
specifically decisions regarding eco-fashion. Previous studies have shown that the store
related attributes and garment attributes are the main influential factors of consumer
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purchasing decisions and they overshadowed the environmental attributes of the garment
(Chan & Wong, 2012).
There were three hypotheses questions developed to identify any relationships
between the store related attributes and garment attributes, specifically as they relate to
environmental attributes. Identifying any relationship, or lack thereof, will help to
identify areas to focus on and improve on in order to promote growth and increase sales
of eco-fashion garments.
Hypothesis 1: Store related attributes will have a positive relationship with
environmental attributes.
Null 1: Store related attributes will not have a positive relationship with environmental
attributes.
Store related attributes that influence consumer purchasing decisions are
identified in the survey questions about brand reputation, store design, convenience to the
consumer, customer service, and brand environmentally friendly practices. Retail stores
are integrating environmentally ethical practices into their environment, and the fashion
consumer takes these attributes into account when making an eco-fashion purchase
(Creyer & Ross, 1997).
Brand reputation is becoming increasingly important for the environmentally
conscious consumer, with increased transparency of brand practices available to the
public through online publications. The atmosphere and layout of a store including
lighting, quality, customer service, and music can either attract or discourage potential
retail fashion purchases. Stores that offer recycling services or known for their
environmentally friendly practices can influence where the consumer decides to shop,
along with the level of convenience for the consumer to access the eco fashion garments
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(Chan & Wong, 2012). These factors lead me to hypothesize that store related attributes
will have a positive relationship with the environmental attributes identified in the
survey.
Hypothesis 2: Garment related attributes will have no relationship with environmental
attributes.
Null 2: Garment related attributes will have a relationship with environmental attributes.
The garment related attributes identified in the survey are design appeal,
trendiness, quality, price, and how well the garment fits. These attributes have been
shown to have an importance in the purchasing decisions for all fashion consumers, and
are generally materialistic in nature. Since these attributes influence the decisions of
every fashion consumer I hypothesize that there will be no relationship between the
garment related attributes and the environmental attributes of the garment.
Hypothesis 3: The majority of Seattle consumers will be willing to pay the price
premium of 10% or more for organic cotton clothing.
Null 3: The majority of Seattle consumers will not be willing to pay the price premium of
10% or more for organic cotton clothing.
Eco-fashion products are offered to a consumer at a price premium above the cost
of conventionally produced products. Previous studies have shown that eco-fashion
consumers are willing to pay a price premium for environmentally responsible products,
and “that a 10 percent price premium would not affect fashion consumers’ willingness to
purchase eco-fashion” (Chan & Wong, 2012). The survey I conducted focuses on
residents of Seattle, who are known to be more environmentally conscious and
responsible than other cities in the United States and internationally. Based on this
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sample population demographics’ I hypothesize that the Seattle fashion consumer will be
willing to pay a price premium of 10% or more for organic cotton clothing.
4.3 Statistical Analysis
Survey participants were kept anonymous, and each completed survey was
assigned a number. The raw ordinal and categorical data was entered into an excel
spreadsheet where it was analyzed and graphed based on the answers for each individual
question. The graphs and data were reviewed, and compared in order to identify any
trends, anomalies, and significant findings relating to my initial hypotheses.
I employed a confirmatory factor analysis to validate the data reliability using a
Cronbach’s Alpha reliability test with SPSS 17.0 software. This test is a measure of
internal consistency showing how closely related the set of data is when measured as a
group. The standard level for consistency of statistical data with a Cronbach’s Alpha test
is any result above 0.7. The Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient range of all constructs is .800
that shows a high level of internal consistency within the data.
Statistics shown in the Table 10 provide correlation data for the individual
variables and the Cronbach’s Alpha consistency level for the data set if the respective
variable has been deleted. There would be a slightly higher, but not significantly higher,
level of consistency if any of the demographic questions or price variable were removed
from the data set.
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's
Cronbach's
Alpha
Alpha Based on
N of Items
Standardized
Items
.800
.772
21
Table 10. Summary of Reliability Statistics and Cronbach’s Alpha scor
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Item-Total Statistics
Scale Mean if
Scale Variance
Corrected Item-
Squared
Cronbach's
Item Deleted
if Item Deleted
Total
Multiple
Alpha if Item
Correlation
Correlation
Deleted
What is your gender
66.16
101.032
-.058
.272
.806
Income Levels
65.50
100.455
-.054
.434
.819
Age
65.59
97.728
.102
.462
.805
Have Children?
66.14
100.574
-.015
.329
.805
Highest Level of Education
64.52
99.578
.009
.220
.809
Design Appeal
64.00
93.146
.347
.342
.793
Current Trend
65.22
94.355
.251
.235
.798
Quality
63.69
91.273
.528
.527
.785
Price
63.76
99.535
.016
.356
.809
How well it fits
63.32
92.873
.468
.447
.788
64.51
84.702
.672
.594
.772
Customer Service
63.82
95.608
.207
.259
.800
Convenience
63.97
95.830
.210
.313
.800
64.39
94.555
.243
.240
.799
Brand Reputation
64.53
94.769
.215
.277
.800
Amount of water wasted
64.59
83.548
.706
.806
.769
64.43
81.911
.740
.817
.766
64.44
82.272
.723
.863
.767
64.66
82.431
.760
.850
.766
64.27
81.771
.759
.717
.765
65.38
89.204
.355
.377
.794
Brand environmentally
friendly practices
Store design and
atmosphere
Pollution amounts during
construction
Sustainable manufacturing
methods
Energy amounts during
production
Choose less
environmentally harmful
How much more are you
willing to pay for organic
cotton clothing
Table 11. Descriptive Statistics, correlations and reliability data contingencies.
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4.31 Common Method Variance
I conducted a Harman’s single factor test to check for common method variance.
Since all data was collected from a common method (my survey), there is a risk of
common method bias in the data. This means that there is a possibility of variances
occurring from the measurement methods rather than from the data retrieved from the
survey, which can cause biases that inflate or deflate relationships between two variables
leading to both type I and type II statistical errors (Podsakoff et al., 2003), since this level
of variance for a single factor is below 50% there is a low possibility of any errors being
caused by method bias.
Component
Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings
Total
1
% of Variance
5.569
26.520
Cumulative %
26.520
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
Table 12. Total variance explained.
4.32 Data Analysis
After evaluating the data from the survey a Pearson’s Correlation was used to test
Hypothesis 1 and Hypothesis 2. Prior to running this test to make sure that the data met
the criteria a Pearson’s Correlation test was ran. The data must be normally distributed,
interval level, linear, and free of any significant outliers. The demographics data and
price premium data were removed from the correlation analysis since it did not meet the
criteria for the test and the hypotheses did not require it.
The next step in performing the correlation test was to group my data sets into the
three sections that were identified in the survey. Each section (Garment Attributes, Store
Related Attributes, and Garment Attributes) in the survey consisted of five Likert-type
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Figure 23. Correlation between environmental attributes and store related attributes.
Figure 24. Correlation between environmental attributes and garment related attributes .
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questions from one to 5. I computed the mean response per survey participant for these
five questions and developed three data sets consisting of the mean responses from the
five questions from each section. The three sections were listed as the MeanGarment,
MeanEnvironment, and MeanStore, relating to their previous counterparts; garment
attributes, environmental attributes, and store related attributes, respectively.
Table 13 shows the results from a Pearson’s product-momentum correlation
coefficient that was computed in order to assess the relationship between environmental
attributes, store related attributes and garment attributes. The data was then analyzed
utilizing a Multi Response Permutation Procedure (MRPP) through the PC-ORD
program. The data was divided based on each individual question response and plotted on
a matrix. A separate matrix was developed and organized based on the demographics for
each participant in order to identify relationships and trends based on demographics and
the survey responses. If a question was not answered by one of the participants it was
removed from the matrix prior to analysis. The MRPP was conducted in order to identify
any relationships between income levels and the survey answers and found no significant
relationship. Predictive data was gathered from the survey question regarding how much
of price premium consumers would the customer be willing to pay, and the mean
percentage from all surveys was entered into the results.
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Table 13. Correlations.
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The Price Premium Seattle Consumers are
Willing to Pay for an Organic Cotton
Garment
35
Responses
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Nothing
1-4%
5-9%
10-14%
15-19%
20-24%
25% or
more
The Additional Cost Increase of an Organic Cotton
Garment as a Percentage
Figure 25. This graph shows the results of the Seattle consumer’s willingness to pay the price
premium of an organic cotton garment. A majority of Seattle consumers are found to pay 10-14% more
for an organic cotton garment, with the second majority willing to pay 5-9%.
4.4 Discussion
4.41 Comparing Attribute Results
Based on the Pearson’s Correlation analysis, the findings from the Seattle data
show that environmental related attributes (ERA) have significant positive correlations
between both store related attributes (SRA) and garment related attributes (GRA). These
results support previous research study findings that were reviewed in the comprehensive
analysis discussion in this paper about the level of importance consumers place on both
GRA and SRA. The results are contradictory to Chan & Wong’s findings that stated
GRA is not related to ERA. This may be due to the outdoor health conscious
demographic within the Seattle population who place importance on style, functionality
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and fashion identity while still remaining concerned about the environmental impact of
their clothing choices.
SRA displayed a stronger relationship than GRA did with ERA. This may be due
to consumers who make purchases based on ERA do not place as much importance on
the materialistic clothing qualities associated with GRA. It may also be that the Seattle
demographic places greater levels of importance on convenience, atmosphere, and
customer service when purchasing a higher priced eco-fashion garment. Most consumers
place more importance on both SRA and GRA than on ERA, as reported in other research
studies.
4.411 Store Related Attributes
The strong positive correlation between ERA and SRA was predicted due to the
consumer support that Seattle residents give to local organic and ethically responsible
businesses. The positive correlation shows that the participants in this survey represent
consumers who recognize a brand’s reputation and environmentally responsible practices
when making a purchasing decision. This reflects the level of trust, respect, and overall
experience the consumer has had when purchasing eco-fashion items from a specific
company rather than the cheaper conventionally produced comparable garment from their
competitors (Yagci, Biswas, & Dutta, 2009).
4.412 Garment Related Attributes
Within the garment related attributes (GRA) section of the survey the most
important influential factors identified were fit, price, and quality respectively (Fierman,
1991; Magrath, 1992, Mandese, 1991; Roberts, 1996; Stisser, 1994; Whittemore, 1991).
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It is interesting to note the lack of importance that consumers contribute to the trendiness
of the garment.
Garment Related Attributes
70
Sum of Respones
60
50
Design Appeal
40
Currently Trendy
30
Quality
20
Price
10
How well the garment fits
0
1
2
3
4
5
The Degree of Importance:
1 being very unimportant and 5 being very important
Figure 26. Level of Importance of Garment Related Attributes. This graph represents the responses
based on the Likert-type questions about GRA that were presented to the Seattle survey participant sample
population.
Forty-eight out of the ninety-four participants stated they would pay 10% or more
for an eco-fashion organic cotton garment supporting my hypothesis. This willingness to
pay a price premium represents a consumer demographic that is willing to sacrifice a
reasonable, but not overly reasonable price, premium for the sake of environmental
sustainability. Higher garment prices do play a role in consumer decision-making, but
consumers also have concern for the environmental impact that their purchase supports
(Lin, 2010). This research supports the Seattle study, that found consumers are very
concerned about price, but are willing to pay 10-14% more for a garment that has
minimal environmental impact. In the Roberts and Bacon (1997) study they
recommended, “marketers are advised to emphasize the delicate balance of nature and
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how consumers can still consume, but in a more ecologically fashion” and “that
consumers may be swayed by ecological appeals.”
H1
H2
H3
Hypothesis
Comments
ERA is positively correlated with SRA
ERA is not correlated with GRA
>50% of Seattle residents will pay ≥10% PP for OCC
Supported
Rejected
Supported
ERA=Employee Related Attributes
SRA=Store Related Attributes
GRA=Garment Related Attributes
PP=Price Premium
OCC=Organic Cotton Clothing
Table 14. Hypothesis
The level of importance that consumers claim to consider regarding
environmental and ethical consumption is more than what the levels of consumption and
market penetration in the organic cotton garment industry suggest. This is most likely due
to the indirect and removed consequences of purchasing an item that negatively impacts
communities in distant developing countries, rather than empirical observations from the
consumer (Chan, 2012). This may also be due to the lack of consideration of the
environmental implications associated with their purchasing decisions (Butler & Francis,
1997).
4.42 Research Implications
Consumer behavior regarding eco-fashion purchases can be influenced, predicted,
and manipulated. Improving a company’s GRA and SRA would result in a slight increase
in purchases based on ERA. Consumer attitudes towards specific brands and its
respective SRA will influence environmental attitudes that the consumer has towards the
company which can be an influential factor that is considered when making an ecofashion purchase. When a store alters the SRA consumer perceptions regarding the
environmental implications associated with that change may raise or lower the level of
environmentally responsible behavior associated with the brand reputation. The SRA that
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consumers usually respond to is an increase or decrease in product prices that a company
makes which may not represent the underlying environmentally responsible decision that
initially prompted the price increases.
When companies make decisions based on increased ethical and environmentally
responsible practices, customers need to be able to easily identify and understand the
company’s rationale; otherwise they risk the possibility of decreasing eco-fashion
purchases while increasing costs. Brand reputation is critical to for eco fashion
companies to maintain in order to sustain and increase the amount of loyal customer who
trust the environmentally responsible claims claimed by the company (Phau & Ong,
2007). If a company properly develops a responsible, green, and ethical reputation,
ethical committed consumers would purchase and promote their organic cotton garments
despite the price increase from the premium added to cover the extra costs.
The majority of the survey responses emphasized a level of importance regarding
brand reputation that ranged from important to very important. The somewhat important
response was chosen the most (32 times), but important (28), and very important (14)
represent half of all participants who seriously consider a company’s reputation before
deciding on whether to buy clothing from them.
Solomon and Rabolt (2004) wrote that environmentally motivated consume tends
to be college educated, with an above average income, and most often female. Butler and
Francis stated that “age was more useful in predicting purchasing behavior but was
mitigated by the stronger effect of the general environmental attitudes.” These
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Store Attributes: Brand's Reputation
35
30
Sum of
Responses
25
20
15
10
5
0
1
2
3
4
5
Degrees of Importance
1 being Not Important and 5 being Very Important
Figure 27. Brand Reputation. This graph shows the Seattle responses to the level of importance of brand
reputation.
demographic generalizations and stereotypes were not observed in the analysis of Seattle
participant responses. No significant relationship was identified between gender, income,
and eco-fashion decision-making choices. This lack of relationship does not support or
reject the previous findings. It only allows the observer to acknowledge the lack of
supporting empirical evidence for the previous results extrapolated from the Seattle
survey participant responses.
The lack of trends, patterns, or correlations identified between income and
influential purchasing decision factors supports the idea that Seattle consumers support
environmental responsibility and ethical companies based on internal motivating factors.
The level of income for this demographic did not provide any information that would
help predict future consumer purchasing trends based on the income per capita in the
population. This is an interesting finding due to the high level of importance reported
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with an organic garment’s price, meaning that consumers may be considering price as an
important factor, but not necessarily because they can’t afford the item.
The small percentage of consumers who responded with a high level of
importance for the level of trendiness of the garment aligns with the minority 2.5%
35
Clothing Attributes: Currently
Trendy
30
Responses
25
20
15
10
5
0
1
2
3
4
Degree of Importance
Figure 28. Seattle participant’s level of importance to a garment’s trendiness.
5
innovator personality type that is identified in Roger’s Theory. Innovators were identified
as consumers who adopt the latest and most current trends and innovations, which are
consistent with the small number of participants that placed a high level of importance of
trendiness when deciding on whether to buy an organic cotton garment (Rogers, 2003).
The results and trends identified in this paper provide additional insight into what
drives consumers to make purchasing decisions relating to organic cotton clothing,
specifically as it relates to SRA and GRA. Companies that are attempting to increase
sales and growth within this sector of clothing sales should be cognizant of the delicate
balance associated with implementing a price premium in order to cover the additional
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costs that are associated with environmental responsibility. The results of this study help
explain the influence of price premiums, SRA, and GRA have on the successful
marketing and sales of eco-fashion products. Consumers have consistently shown that
they would choose the environmentally responsible choice if there were no changes in
GRA and SRA including price, quality and convenience. The degree of change between
these factors is significant and positively correlated with a moderate to strong relationship
(Chan & Wong, 2012)
4.43 Limitations of Survey Data
The relatively small sample size of ninety-four participants provides a significant
chance of inaccurate conclusions based on sampling errors, unreliable coefficients, and
method biases resulting from one question accounting for a disproportionate response
level. Additionally the lack of diversity found in small sample sizes could result in
unreliable relationships based on demographic identification responses. These surveys
were completed utilizing an anonymous self-reporting system about influential
motivating factors. A participant’s lack of self-awareness, understanding of personal
motivations, level of integrity, personal accountability, and the desire to answer questions
based on perceived socially acceptable responses could cause skewed data that does not
accurately depict the true responses or actions that may be seen from passive observance
data collection techniques.
Quantifying individual degrees of importance may create a scale that does not
account for the true level of importance, or lack thereof, when choosing their responses.
The data analysis compiled the data into three categories and calculated the mean
responses from five questions within each category. This calculation method could result
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in disproportionate representations of the levels of importance a consumer feels about a
specific factor because the very important response was chosen for only one categorical
response, which is eliminated when calculating the categorical means. Lea-Greenwood
(1999) conducted a study that helped identify the challenges that accompany researchers
gathering information in order to identify an accurate degree of consumer behavior
choices based on ethics and responsibility. Consumers often tend to answer questions
more positively than their true purchasing behaviors reflect (Casadesus-Masanell et al.,
2009). The concept of action speaking louder than words directly applies to consumer
purchasing behaviors, where the answers a consumer provides does not align with their
true purchasing patterns (Lea-Greenwood, 1999).
4.5 Areas of Opportunity
There are areas of opportunity that the organic cotton market can utilize to
increase sales and overcome obstacles. Strategic business strategies can reduce risk and
establish a stronger market starting with production, continuing through the supply chain,
and with the finished product at the retail end. Businesses can make changes and
influences logistically or to influence consumers.
4.51 Production
Identifying the areas of opportunity for market expansion within the organic
cotton market will assist in identifying and overcoming the difficulties that emerge from
market growth along the supply chain. Myers and Stolton (1999) identify three key
factors that would stimulate the organic cotton market. The first factor is the portion of
the market consisting of environmentally motivated consumers who make purchasing
decisions based on environmentally responsible practices.
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Secondly, the increased pressures from the government through regulatory
methods outlined in environmental legislation are designed to motivate and reward
companies that pursue alternative production methods in an effort to combat climate
change and environmental degradation. The last main factor that drives the organic
market is increased emphasis within companies to develop less resource intensive and
waste reducing methods of production to maximize efficiency and consumption levels
(Myers & Stolton, 1999). A survey of U.S. organic famers resulted in drafting
requirements from farmers in order to insure long-term success. The farmers stated that
the areas that needed to most attention to reduce risk and improve their industry would
be, organic cottonseeds need to be commercially available for purchase and continual
GOTS improvement. The GOTS certification procedures and ongoing innovative market
research made available to organic farmers has helped the market with transparency and
of educational needs (Organic Trade Association, 2014).
4.511 Market Structure
Conventional methods of cotton production are being promoted and protected by
leaders in the industry, because they refuse to acknowledge the lack of sustainability in
cotton production. The global cotton market is made up of large publicly traded
corporations, and the investors of these companies expect and demand a decent return on
their investment. In a business model like this, future projected growth of the market and
profit and loss projections are developed to appease the investors. An incorrect way to
produce future forecasts is to dismiss the fact that the natural resources essential to
production are being depleted at a consistently increasing rate and the true cost of
pollution is not a concern.
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Investors are appeased because short-term projections only reflect the increased
profits due to the reduced short-term costs associated with the conventional production
methods. This approach is irresponsible for leaders in the industry not only because of the
damage they are causing the environment, but also because of false confidence they are
giving investors. A responsible and more realistic method of forecasting can be achieved
by utilizing an interdisciplinary analysis combining data compiled from economic,
environmental, sociological, and consumer behavioral studies to accurately project future
growth and costs in the cotton market. Sustainable technological developments have not
advanced beyond consumer consumption; therefore studying consumer behavior is
necessary to pursue sustainable development (Jackson, 2008). The following is a
synthesis of such research combined with a pilot study that gathered data from a sample
population.
4.512 Governments
One of the hurdles identified by farmers was the level of corruption within host
nation governments that manipulate market activity and deny assistance to organic cotton
farmers. Tax credits and incentives are not equitably distributed to farmers, and some
legislators promote processes that discourage, rather than encourage, organic cotton
production. The current conditions and attributes of organic cotton in the global market is
one of the rare cases where government subsidies and tariffs need to be implemented in
order to assist and insulate the commodity from competitive industries positioned to
increase market stress and volatility in order to eliminate the emerging threat within the
industry (Myers & Stolton, 1999). Tariffs have the characteristic of multiplying the cost
due to the vertical structure of this industry (Nordas, 2004). The WTO has made
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considerable progress in the promotion of equitable conditions of organic cotton within
existing subsidized markets. The WTO issued a ruling in 2007 declaring that the
governments of both China and the United States were subsidizing and protecting
conventional cotton in the global market, which undermined global free trade
agreements. Export and import subsidies, favorable border protection standards, and tax
credits reduced by more than 50% in these countries after the ruling was released by the
WTO (Page & Ritchie, 2009).
4.513 Production Level Improvements
There currently is a shortage of organic cotton seed supplies that farmers,
scientists, and analysts are making a collaborative effort to solve this problem before the
levels of demand create a shortage that artificially inflates organic cotton prices in the
global market (Truscott et al., 2013). “Little work is being done to improve the
cottonseed through traditional breeding techniques” (Organic Trade Association, 2014).
The current shortage in organic cottonseeds is limiting the availability of different seed
options to organic farmers, and as this problem progresses, farmers face an increasing
level of difficulty of access to organic cottonseeds. The increased usage of genetically
modified (GM) seeds for cotton farming (~43% of all seeds are GM) is reducing the
genetic diversity in cottonseeds limiting the availability of viable organic cottonseeds. A
large amount of cotton farms within the cotton industry are small-scale farms and this
small business model has increased the demand for organic cottonseeds instead of the
GM varieties. GM seeds do not provide any genetic diversity, and cost more than organic
seeds. These seeds also cannot be reproduced during a harvest due to the patent that the
private companies that produce these seeds hold on the intellectual property rights of the
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cottonseed (Page & Ritchie, 2009). Large corporations with unlimited resources have
directed the areas of focus through grants and access to funds for agricultural research to
mainly progress in the GM sector while the organic cottonseed supply problems are
neglected.
The development of this seed shortage has changed farming practices with
farmers making sure to stockpile their seeds, utilizing methods that have been practiced
for years in both Egypt and Turkey, in order to prevent future supply shortages.
Increased transparency and activism against private monopolies that reduce biodiversity
in order to eliminate competition needs to happen in order to actively promote organic
cottonseed research programs and projects (Textile Exchange, Cotton Briefing, 2011). A
system needs to be implemented in order to protect seed diversity, stockpiles, and
ongoing research and development within the organic farming industry (Truscott et al.,
2013), because farmers need to have new seeds every 2-3 years to combat climate change
(Ferigno, 2011).
With any kind of technological advances in an industry there should be an
increase in market growth, because “material technology is a competitive advantage”
(Nordas, 2004). Defoliants and weed control are areas that need to be improved, as
organic cotton farming develops within the market. The organic cotton farming process
faces production challenges associated with yield quantities resulting from the lack of
ability to utilize chemicals and defoliants. Innovative technological advances need to
continually be developed through a focus on market improvement based on research and
development in order to improve organic cotton harvest yields and quality. New
techniques and technologies need to be developed in order to reduce the amount of
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manpower required to adequately manage weed and pest control. These improvements
would drastically reduce overhead costs, which would help organic cotton companies to
produce reasonably priced garments.
4.514 Economies of Scale
Strategic partnerships between large retail companies and producers throughout
the organic cotton production supply chain could provide a mutually beneficial
relationship with a common goal of increasing sales and market growth within the
organic cotton industry. Implementing economies of scale strategy would reduce
production costs due the partnership’s ability to disperse the costs across the entire supply
chain, preventing the concentration of cost in one area of the supply chain, common
within the organic cotton market.
Not having production centers that are exclusively used for organic cotton slows
down the fabric production process and this gap in production efficiency is where organic
cotton producers accrue significant costs. When a mill or weaving center is processing
organic cotton it must first clean all parts of the machine that contact the fiber in order to
maintain the organic standard for cotton in the industry. This separation and sanitation
process, especially when done for small amounts of organic fiber, is a key area of
inefficiency within the production process.
Increasing the amount of organic cotton that is processed throughout the supply
chain will help increase the market stability of organic cotton, and reduce the risk of large
price fluctuations due to supply issues that may arise from a single producing nation
(similar to the 2009 price dip based on India’s internal affairs). Economies of scale
decrease the cost of production when larger amounts of organic cotton are available to be
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processed at once. Improved distribution processes and increased market availability will
help reduce the price premium that has been identified as a key deterrent for consumers
deciding whether or not to purchase organic cotton garments. Elaina Duffy, the
Sustainable Innovation Director for Nike Inc. was quoted saying, “because of the volume,
we’ve been able to keep the pricing comparable” (Wilson, 2004). With the incorporation
of organic cotton products into apparel lines by large corporations, such as Gap Inc.,
H&M, and Nike, organic cotton producers are able to significantly reduce costs due to the
large scale streamlining of production processes (Myers & Stolton, 1999). The size of the
organic cotton market has just recently reached the levels that are needed to take
advantage of reduced costs by streamlining processes through an economy of scale. This
significant growth in the industry has been successful enough for the gradual phasing out
of cotton blend products that were developed in order to reduce costs from cotton supply
and production issues.
4.52 Business Strategies
Retail companies can entice all consumers and market to the environmentally
conscious consumer with strategic business strategies. Through brand image, marketing,
and the type of organic cotton incorporation, companies can increase sales while reducing
environmental damage. Organic cotton garments are adaptable for the mainstream ready
to wear industry, retailer’s just need to price and design eco-fashion appropriately.
4.521 Brand Image
Businesses can also improve their reputation and appeal to consumer’s ethics and
pathos by providing an organic cotton garment option. To keep a strategic foothold
within the ready-to-wear market companies need to adjust strategies as the consumers
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have been reported to, choosing environmental products and favoring brands with good
environmental reputations (Kim & Damhorst, 1998). Companies partaking in cause
marketing can increase sales (Solomon & Rabolt, 2004). Building brand loyalty is crucial
to business these days and is a way the brand can contribute to a positive environmental
impact (Texileexchange.org, 2014). Carrigan and Attalla (2001) come to the conclusion
that if a consumer has an established loyalty with a certain product the consumer said it
would be difficult to stop buying it.
Unfortunately, unethical companies are supported by consumers due to lack of
education, competitive pricing, or the consumer is not emotionally connected to the
cause. Results from a survey showed that consumers were uninformed about corporations
acting irresponsibly, ending result was that 18% of participants could list firms that were
acting irresponsibly and 26% could list corporations acting responsibly (Dragon
International, 1991). Continual research said consumers do not actively boycott
companies because they do not feel informed enough about the fashion brands’ ethical
behavior (Joergens, 2006; Pickett-Baker & Ozaki, 2008), overwhelmed by the amount of
information or cannot afford to (Carrigan & Attalla, 2001). This is where cost again
becomes so important.
4.522 Incorporation of Organic Cotton
Smart business strategies can help with the transition of organic cotton. Different
retailers have to deal with acquiring organic cotton in the most profitable way that
complements their business structure. Business strategies will vary depending on the size
of the retailer, their product, and their consumer demographics. For the small-scale
retailer Hessnatur (a European retailer) selling exclusively organic cotton apparel offers a
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smaller selection of styles to protect the profit margin (Illge & Preuss, 2012). This
business strategy reduces the variety of garments offered which curb the cost of design
and other garment production costs to offset the price premium (Illge & Preuss, 2012;
Patagonia, 2006). The large-scale retailer, H&M, utilizes economies of scale to purchase
and sell large amounts of organic cotton. H&M, the pioneer of this vertical retail
structure, uses the buy-in-bulk strategy to maximize profit. This system allows the retailer
to sell the clothes at low prices by reducing middlemen, producing large quantities, and
having a streamlined distribution process (Illge & Preuss, 2012).
Continually monitoring consumer needs and the market provides companies with
educated business decisions. Companies like H&M have found success by diversifying
their products and blending cottons while other companies have increased sales through
switching entirely to organic cotton. Patagonia is one of the most prime examples of
company that completely switched to selling organic cotton in the summer of 1994
(Patagonia, 2006), and their sales increased by 25% (Sathe & Crooke, 2010).
4.523 Pricing the Organic Cotton Garment
There are different marketing approaches and strategies retailers can use to
combat the challenge of a price premium. The price premium that is often attached to
eco-fashion is so significant that Chan and Wong (2012) reported that it affects the
relationship between store-related attributes and eco-fashion decisions. Coop Switzerland
sold over one million organic items at the same prices as the alternative, the company
giving credit to their marketing strategy (Myers & Stolton, 1999). Other strategies to
overcome the hurdle of cost can be the blending of conventional and organic cotton to
reduce cost and temporary price subsidies (Myers & Stolton, 1999).
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Marketing to consumers that are less concerned about price, or more concerned
with eco-friendly products lessens the importance of the cost convenience factor (Myers
& Stolton, 1999). Otherwise, to combat with the higher cost of eco-fashion marketers can
highlight the other qualities of the garment (Meyer, 2001). Retailers increase sales by
sharing the environmental information through marketing to “increase the importance of
ecological compatibility” (Roberts & Bacon, 1997). An example of this can be seen at
H&M, where they offer pamphlets about their organic cotton program. Changing the
way a consumer sees the product is to change their beliefs through more marketing and
education (Roberts & Bacon, 1997). A liberal return policy would persuade consumers of
the quality and worthiness of the added cost. This idea comes from the research by
Moorthy and Srinivasan (1995) that showed rebates and money-back guarantees helped
move the inventory of the higher priced green products.
4.524 Marketing/Labeling
Organic cotton garments face the obstacle of green washing (Cotton Incorporated,
2008; Tompkins, 2008). Research suggests that consumers obtain information about the
production standards and ethics while constructing the garments they purchase from the
label on the product. This passive flow of knowledge “suggests that consumers are
passive ethical shoppers rather than active consumer ethicists” (Carrrigan & Attalla,
2005). Confusion has arisen with consumers over the marketing words “organic” and
“sustainable” (Ross, 2006). The lack of clarity around these words creates uncertainty
and confusion, reducing the importance and meaning the label represents to the consumer
(Yan et al., 2012). A clear and concise uniform system of labeling is essential to
increasing environmental awareness through green marketing, which can have a
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significant positive influence on the eco-fashion industry (Ochoa, 2011). Research
suggests that the information presented on a label alters consumer decision making and
overall though processes while purchasing clothing (as said from, Chen & Wei, 2012).
Recently, the Federal Trade Commission has revised the green marketing guide to
combat the problem of green washing (Cotton Incorporated, 2008). Global Organic
Textile Standard also increased effectiveness with its labeling that is credited to a
growing membership, unified labeling, and creating a system standard for certified
organic cotton. Facilities carrying GOTS certification recently experienced an 11%
increase in 2012, bringing the total number of facilities to 3,016 (Organic Trade
Association, 2014). The increase of certified facilities is due to the rising awareness and
standardization of certified textiles and an increase in transparency (Organic Trade
Association, 2014). “Increasingly, more consumers are looking for various green
products in the market” (Lin, 2010). Businesses can benefit from selling the eco-friendly
option when they can clearly communicate the sustainable practices of their company
(Yan et al., 2012). With an increase in clear organic marketing consumers can be
educated and support the products with confidence.
4.525 Eco-Fashion Appeal
Clothes represent fashion, taste, style, and personality. Organic clothing faces the
challenge of not being able to keep up with the trend (Illge & Preuss, 2012). Organic
cotton garments in the past have been limited in style and colors, which hinders the
ability to have mass appeal. This past trend contributes to the initial weak growth of
organic cotton garment market in the 1990’s. Trend-setting customers are the innovators
that make up an estimated 16% of the population. They possess strong opinions and
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express themselves through fashion (Morgan & Birtwistle, 2009). The absence of
captivating this part of the population limits fashion ideas and trend exposure to the rest
of the population.
There is a knowledge gap within the green fashion market, “producers and
designers still lack knowledge of what the consumer desires and values in the eco-fashion
field” (Niinimaki, 2010). When Esprit decided to experiment with an organic product line
in 1992 it failed and the company contributed this to organic cotton being a fad with
limited colors. Consumer got bored and Esprit was not able to keep up with the changing
trend (Sathe & Crooke, 2010). Continually advancements are being made in eco-fashion
and organic cotton can be substituted were conventional is used with no noticeable
difference.
Research has showed that even when consumers care about the ethical practices
of a company, they are not willing to sacrifice price, value, and quality (Carrigan &
Attalla, 2001). Kirsi Niinimaki (2010) advocates that the designing and production part of
fashion needs to take initiative and responsibility to create products for the consumer’s
desires, needs, and values. “It seems that the effect of ethical issues on consumers
purchasing behavior is relatively low because respondents cannot avoid acting
unethically when purchasing clothing which refers to low or no availability of fashion
that suits their aesthetic needs” (Joergens, 2006). Solomon and Rabolt (2004) agree with
the previous statement, “that in the clothing industry, fashion and trends lead consumer
choices.”
Image and eco-fashion tend to be in direct conflict with each other, designers in
eco-fashion find that the green image can stand in the way of being fashionable (Illge &
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Preuss, 2012). “The more weight they put on issues such as eco-materials and the less
important is the need to renew their appearance” (Niinimaki, 2010). If garments were
made with high quality materials, adding value and meant for a longer closet life span,
then the disposal fashion mindset could be reversed slowing down the cycle of fashion.
Physical attributes of a garment are significant to the consumer’s purchase
decision. The organic cotton garments market has seen expansion because retailers
identified the lack of trend they didn’t incorporate into the garment with the initial
launch, now retailers have been successful when they addressed this oversight. With
technological advances and an increase of emerging eco-designers the organic cotton
garment has a stronger future.
4.526 Consumers Lack of Education
Lack of consumer education and awareness has shielded the conventional cotton
industry controversy and pressure from environmentalists about their irresponsible and
exploitive practices. Increased access, education, and awareness to consumers about the
environmental impacts and social impacts caused by conventional cotton production will
help stimulate change in consumer demands and behaviors globally. Unfortunately, the
average consumer is not aware of the resources, pollution, and poor conditions built
around the construction of their clothing due to the geographical disconnect between the
producer and consumer. The developed societies that are responsible for consuming
clothes that, “knowledge and responsibility are so diffused among economic actors that
no one really feels responsible” (as said by Heiskanen & Pantzar, 1997).
Research has shown that educated consumers are more likely to make an organic
cotton purchasing decision based on environmental concerns, which is a trend that has
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been highlighted in studies on multiple organic products and consumer behavior (Butler
& Francis, 1997; Birtwistle & Moore, 2007; Kim & Damhorst, 1998; Hawley 2006; Lin,
2010; Montoro et al., 2006; Ogle, Hyllegard, & Dunbar, 2004; Phau & Ong, 2007;
Staikos & Rahimifard, 2007). These consumers are also willing to pay more for organic
cotton garments based on environmentally motivated reasoning (Casadesus-Masanell et
al., 2009). Educated consumers who have an understanding of environmental and
ecological impacts caused by humans usually chose to purchase garments that were
shown to have a reduced carbon footprint (Roberts & Bacon, 1997). Previous focus
groups and studies have hypothesized that the small size of the organic cotton market is
due to the lack of media attention on the harmful production methods used by
conventional production methods along with the convenience of fast-fashion purchases
(Joergens, 2006; Morgan & Birtwistle, 2009).
Consumers are not fully informed on the true cost of their garment beyond the
retail price. The environmental impact, socioeconomic exploitation, and risks to
communities associated with conventionally produced garments need to be considered
when making a clothing purchase (Myers & Stolton, 1999). According to a survey
conducted by Butler and Francis in 1997, 90% of consumers polled admitted that they did
not consider environmental impacts associated with the production of the clothing that
they purchased. 75% of people polled; in a UK study knew little to nothing about the
environmental issues associated with the fashion industry (Moral Fibre, a Beginner’s
Guide to The UK Market, 2005). While studies have consistently shown significant
numbers of consumers that lack awareness and education about environmental issues,
75% of those that admitted they knew nothing stated that they wanted to learn more about
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the damage caused by their clothing (Fashion Goes Green High-Street Retailers are
Rushing to Introduce Ethical Clothing Ranges, 2006; Your M&S, 2007).
In the end, a company has to weigh the tradeoff between economic performance
and environmental conservation (Illge & Preuss, 2012). They, “may create a happy
customer in the short-term, in the long run both consumer and society may suffer as a
direct result of the marketer’s actions in “satisfying” the consumer” (Carrigan & Attalla,
2001). Many companies have made organic cotton profitable and the more that do, will
increase the size of the organic cotton market, reducing risk, and in turn encouraging a
market shift beneficial to both people and the environment.
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Chapter Five
CONCLUSION
5.1 Introduction
Research shows that conventional cotton production methods rely on
unsustainable practices and procedures that are detrimental to the environment, regional
biodiversity, and available natural resources which negatively impact the health of
citizens residing in the associated farming communities. The negative impacts from
conventional cotton production methods increase the rate of global climate change,
contaminate local water supplies, consume excessive amounts of natural resources,
pollute the atmosphere and water table, deplete limited nutrients available in arable
farmland, and exploit the needs of impoverished communities for increased profit
margins. In order to responsibly produce the amount of cotton fiber needed to meet
consumer demands, there needs to be a shift from the current “resource-intensive
practices to knowledge-intensive practices” within the conventional textile industry
(Textile Exchange, Cotton Briefing, 2011). “Organic cotton should be promoted as one of
the means of achieving environmentally, economically and socially sustainable cotton
production and processing systems” (Rafiq, 2012).
5.2 Production of Cotton
Harmful chemical additives, flood irrigation techniques, and the lack of crop
rotation in order to fertilize the soil all contribute to the release of significant levels of
nitrogen into the atmosphere and soil contaminating the water table and increasing the
rate of climate change. “Rising costs of inputs, consumer interest, demand from the
public, decreasing pesticide effectiveness due to greater resistance in target organisms,
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and impacts of environmental regulations, including pesticide regulatory pressures, have
stimulated interest in cotton production systems which do not require conventional
synthetic pesticides, fertilizers, or defoliants as inputs” (Myers & Stolton, 1999).
Sustainable organic cotton harvesting methods are successfully being
implemented in farms, producing cotton through environmentally friendly practices that
have high quality output and is being consumed for organic cotton garments. A cotton
farm that transitions to organic production standards gains access to education, grants,
potential corporate partnerships, and assistance in implementing a long-term sustainable
and profitable business plan, without the fear of financial devastation due to crop failure
from a bad harvesting season. Crop rotation methods provide farmers with additional
sources of income, and the labor intensive harvesting process increases the amount of
jobs available to residents of the impoverished cotton farming community (Organic Trade
Association, 2014). Promoting change within the conventional market can provide
profitable investment opportunities for innovative entrepreneurs; clothing companies that
want to improve their green image, and farmers in developing nations who are afforded
the opportunity to improve the standard of living for their families and communities.
Organic cotton farming produces significant profitable yields once harvested at
the end of a growing season. The small portion of the cotton market that consists of
organically produced fiber provides a substantial area of growth that can be achieved
through the transformation of previous conventional farms. Developing agricultural
countries are starting to see the potential for growth, as well as the increased price levels
paid for organic cotton, and are capitalizing on this rapidly growing market. Countries in
West Africa doubled their production levels in 2007-2008 (FAO, 2009), and as public
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awareness and consumer demand increase other regions will inevitably embrace the
environmentally conscious practices.
5.3 Economics
The current conventional cotton market is highly reactive to inflation and
recessions at both national and global levels. Global cotton production trends remain
relatively stagnant when viewing long-term trends and future trends predict stagnation
with small periods of slow growth below the rate of global inflation. This market outlook
identifies the unsustainable business model of the current conventional cotton market,
and investors need to adapt in order to alter future trends. Since the emergence in the
early nineties of organic cotton identified as a niche product within the cotton market,
new opportunities for growth, change and progress have become available. In the
relatively stagnant cotton market, organic cotton has consistently shown significant levels
of growth that does not seem to react to market fluctuations like its conventional
counterpart.
The levels of organic production and consumer demand continue to rise at an
increasing rate due to expanding consumer awareness and transparency within the
garment industry. As research and technological innovations continue, larger organic
cotton operations (economies of scale), motivated by grants and subsidies from the host
nations in order to promote environmentally sustainable farming (Myer & Stolton, 1999).
Retailers entering the organic cotton garment market can take advantage of the
niche marketing strategy (Lin, 2010). Companies transitioning into this market can take
advantage, while adapting new management structures that reduce waste and reduce
production costs (Myer & Stolton, 1999). Organic cotton growth has been credited to the
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increase in green consumerism and the retailer’s expansion of organic cotton use
(Casabona, 2010).
5.4 Consumer Behavior
Educating the public about organic cotton is important to improve the health of
farming communities and to reduce the degradation of the environment. Once consumers
are motivated to purchase products that meet the organic cotton standards, the fashion
industry will be forced to incorporate these products into their clothing lines which will
increase consumer demand, and this process will continue to go back and forth in a
domino like effect. Continual education, public awareness campaigns, and ongoing
innovative research to improve efficiency within organic cotton production methods will
encourage the expansion organic cotton products from a small niche market within the
industry to an emerging high quality product in high demand for both producers and
consumers. Once consumers are motivated to purchase products that meet the organic
cotton standards, the fashion industry will be forced to incorporate these products into
their clothing lines.
Ethics is another fundamental piece credited to the increase in organic cotton
consumption. The increase in price, limited availability, and convenience prove
conventional cotton garments to be a strong competitor. Ethics is one of the factors
behind the consumer’s decision, “it is not enough to possess the prerequisite knowledge
and ability to make efficient consumer decisions, and one must also act according to that
knowledge: (Carrigan & Attalla, 2001). Producers, consumers, and companies behaving
ethically will bring about the needed change, as the organic cotton garment has a more
positive form of production.
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Comprehensive analysis of previous research on consumer behavior influences,
combined with data collected from the Seattle survey provides a unique multilateral
perspective for eco-fashion minded companies to capitalize key demographics in order to
maximize sales and market growth. The research scope is limited to consumer behavioral
analysis in the retail setting, because this is the area that is most easily manipulated,
targeted, and reactive to changes in marketing and merchandise strategies. When
consumer demand for organic cotton grows, the amount of farms producing organic
cotton products will increase in order to appease the desires of the consumer. If
implemented properly and carefully, organic cotton clothing companies can develop a
profitable and sustainable innovative and dynamic business model that is responsive to
the delicate balance between the influencing factors in consumer behavior. A successful
strategy to maximize market penetration and growth would incorporate an aggressive
reactive pricing strategy for the organic garments based on the observed consumer
behaviors associated with the previously identified SRA, GRA, and ERA.
There has been an increase in the amount of ecological consumerism where
individuals make purchasing decisions based on environmental responsibility as the
driving influential factor (Kim & Damhorst, 1998; Lin, 2010; Hanas, 2007; Ottman &
Martin, 2009). Consumers want to purchase products from a company that behaves
ethically, and has a reputation as an environmentally responsible company that is both
sincere in its commitment and reliable (Beard, 2008; Myers & Stolton, 1999; How Green
Are You?, 2006). “Sustainability sells –instead of buying an anonymous product, more
and more consumers are looking for healthy, environmentally friendly clothing whose
production is transparent and guarantees fair labor practices” (Organic Cotton, 2013).
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Matthew Reynolds, the CEO of Indigenous Designs, released a statement reporting a
30% growth in sales from 2002 to 2003 attributed to organically produced garments
(Wilson, 2004). The environment, local communities, and global market will
continuously improve concurrently with the growth of the organic cotton industry.
“Consumers do not wish to be inconvenienced, and ethical purchasing will only
take place if there are no costs to the consumer in terms of added price, loss of quality or
having to “shop around” (Carrrigan & Attalla, 2005). Price is continuously identified as
the main deterrent to increased consumer demand for the organically produced garments.
Research has shown that increased awareness and consumer education promoting
transparency in the industry will increase consumer acceptance of necessary price
premiums that are needed in order to offset additional costs. The short-term cost of
sustainability is needed in order to insure the long-term quality of our planet.
Morgan and Britwistle (2009) define personality traits attributed to specific
consumer behavioral practices and conclude that consumer-purchasing behaviors are
susceptible to change through increased education and awareness. Consumers in wealthy
nations need to be made aware of the impoverished conditions, forced labor, reduced life
expectancies, and child labor that is needed in order to provide them with the cheaper
conventionally produced garment that they demand. As the consumers become aware of
the issues with conventional production methods, demand will increase, which will result
in the acceptance of sustainable production methods throughout the fashion industry.
The Seattle based survey conducted for this paper provided data that, once
analyzed, confirms previously published studies that identified the committed consumer
and health conscious consumer as the individual who is most receptive to eco-fashion
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sales and marketing strategies. The Seattle demographic is made up of consumers that
are known to be progressive, health conscious, outdoor enthusiasts who support
environmental responsibility and organically produced products. The results did not
produce any patterns, relationships or trends between income levels and eco-fashion
purchasing decisions, providing supportive data for previous study findings that report
consumer purchasing decisions in eco-fashion are based on ethical decisions not on
affordability.
5.5 Summary
Clothing companies such as H&M and Patagonia have been leading the campaign
to promote change within the industry. “H&M’s aim is for all cotton in our range to come
from sustainable sources by 2020 at the latest. Since 2006, H&M has increased the
amount of organic cotton used in production by 17,000% from 50 to 8,500 metric tonnes
and they pledge to continue this increase in volume by 50% annually (Illge & Preuss,
2012).
Retailers have begun to see the need to commit to a more sustainable business
model to insure long-term growth and success. Companies already transitioning to
sustainable production methods are positioning themselves into an area where they will
be considered as the industry leaders in sustainability. These industry leaders are
developing a key infrastructure that is resilient to market shocks resulting from limited
resource availability. Countries, corporations, and individuals are increasingly making
public statements identifying their commitment to environmentally responsible standards,
reductions in emissions, and other sustainable practices that appeal to the “environmental
consumer” (Organic Trade Association, 2014). “Apparel brands are responding to
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increased acceptance of the organic message among consumers” (Ross, 2006).
The current structure of the conventional cotton industry does not support longterm sustainability, and a trsition to alternative production methods is essential in order
for a company to maintain success and productivity in the future. The market transition
from conventional to organic production methods will be a slow consistent and
observable shift perpetuated by increasing consumer demand, decreasing available
resources, and public outcries due to the excessive environmental damage caused by the
conventional production methods. Marketing strategies promoting growth in the organic
cotton industry need to appeal to consumer desires, not guilt, as well as increased public
awareness and education in order to create transparency of the entire production supply
chain of a cotton garment. This consumer-based strategy is designed to increase demand
for organic products, which is what drives the direction of the fashion industry.
The organic cotton market has continuously produced significant levels of growth
and the outlook of this industry does not show any signs of slowing down in the future.
This expansive growth outlook is supported by studies conducted in consumer behavior,
agricultural trends, projected consumer demands, and historical trend analyses of the
growth patterns for cotton garments produced in the fashion industry. Organic farming is
an environmentally and socially responsible production method that provides a
sustainable and profitable harvesting alternative that also combats climate change, water
scarcity, and the exploitation of developing impoverished farming communities (Textile
Exchange, Turkey, 2013). “Consumers, buyers, national governments and industry
associations all have their role to play in helping organic cotton reach more retail
shelves” (Hulm, 2008).
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Appendix A
Organic Cotton Initiatives and Organizations
Better Cotton Initiative:
The Better Cotton Initiative offers informative tools that look at the supply chain to better
assist in the reduction of waste and improve of the system used by small business buying
organic cotton from farmers.
Brazilian Association of Cotton Production (ABRAPA):
The organization of Brazil aiming to unify cotton production standards within the
country. The Cotton Program Manager (ABR) is the sustainability protocol used to grant
certification to organic cotton.
The Organic Cotton Council:
Formed in 1996, is a national organization that partners with all involved parties to unify
the sectors to organize and improve efficiency, to provide a strong voice for legislation
and policy issues, increase public awareness, and increase sales in the industry
Global Textile Exchange:
GOTS was formed in 2006 to reduce the competition and unify four different
associations and unify the standards for organic cotton globally. They are one of the lead
providers of certification for organic cotton globally.
Textile Exchange:
Textile Exchange is an international non-profit organization to inform, lead, and connect
the industry for a more sustainable textile industry. Their vision is to “inspires and equips
people to accelerate sustainable practices in the textile value chain. We focus on
minimizing the harmful impacts of the global textile industry and maximizing its positive
effects.” By Means of three elements: We help embed sustainability into evolving
business and supply chain strategies.
Organic Exchange:
Organic Exchange is a nonprofit organization focused on promoting the growth of
the organically grown cotton industry through connecting suppliers with
consumers. Their focus is to increase the size of organic cotton production to better
social and environmental challenges.
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Appendix B
Seattle Survey
Gender:
Female
Male
Other
Personal Annual Income:
Less than $30,000
$30,000-60,000
$60,000-90,000
$90,000-120,000
$120,000 or Greater
Age:
25 or younger
26-35
36-45
46 or greater
Family:
Have Children
No Children
Highest Education Level Completed?
Less than High School
High School/GED
Associates
Bachelors
Graduate or higher
Please circle the number indicating the degree of importance as it pertains to you. Let the number 1
represent Not Important and 5 represent Very Important.
Not Important / Very Important
Clothing Attributes
Design appeal
Currently trendy
Quality
Price
How well the garment fits
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
Clothing Store–related Attributes
Brands environmentally friendly practices
Customer service
Convenience
Stores design and atmosphere
Brands good reputation
Environmental Attributes
Garments that use less and contaminate less water during manufacturing
Clothes that have minimized pollution during construction
Clothes that have more sustainable manufacturing methods
Clothes that use less energy during production
When given a choice, I choose the garment less environmentally harmful
How much more are you willing to pay for organic cotton clothing?
Nothing
1-4%
5-9%
10-14%
15-19%
20-24%
25% or more
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Appendix C
Glossary
Biodiversity: the variability of all living organisms in a habitat.
Boll: the seed-vessel of a cotton plant
Bollworm: several species of Lepidoptera that feed on cotton balls
Cash-crop: income-earning crops grown for exportation and local consumption.
Cause Marketing: Companies acting socially responsible and charitable within their
communities as a way to enhance their image.
Certified cotton: cotton that has received certification that the production process
followed certified organic production.
Compost: decomposed material and/or animal waste used to put nutrients back in the soil.
Conventional agriculture: the intensive farming process that depends on synthetic
fertilizers and chemicals.
Cotton bale: A compressed bale of cotton lint after the ginning process, with the universal
weight being 220 to 225 kg with a density of 448 kg/m3.
Cotton fiber: is the cotton lint that is separated from the shell during the ginning process.
Cotton gin: the machine used to separate cotton fiber from the seed shell
Cotton lint: “the fiber that develops as an extension of cells in the walls of developing
cotton seed; product that results from the separation of cotton fiber from the cotton seed
in the ginning process” (Myers, 1999).
Cottonseed: the seed of a cotton plant.
Defoliants: chemicals used to remove leaves from the plant before harvest
Eco-fashion: a segment of fashion that uses sustainable fiber and/or recycled materials
Eco-label: the label given to a product by a third party that speaks to the product
produced with more sustainable methods.
Eco-textiles: products made with efforts to reduce environmental impacts.
Environmentally responsible: actions taken to reduce negative environmental impacts.
Genetically modified: the genetic manipulation of an organisms genome.
Ginning: the process that uses machines to separate the cottonseed from the cotton lint
and clean it.
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Greenwashing: refers to a marketing ploy to sell products based on the quality that it is
produced with environmental consciousness, when in actuality it is not.
Herbicide: synthetic chemicals used in farming to kill unwanted plants.
Insecticide: synesthetic chemicals used in farming to kill unwanted insects.
Intercropping: secondary or supplementary crops planted between the rows of the
primary crop
Micronaire: cross-section of the cotton fiber
Monoculture: growing one type of crop year after year in the same soil.
Monocropping: (See Monoculture)
Niche market: a small specific subset market within a larger one
Nitrogen fixation: the process where nitrogen (N2) in the atmosphere is converted into
ammonium (NH4+).
Organic agriculture: is a production system that sustains the health of soils, ecosystems
and people. It relies on ecological processes, biodiversity and cycles adapted to local
conditions, rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects. Organic agriculture
combines tradition, innovation and science to benefit the shared environment and
promote fair relationships and a good quality of life for all involved. \
Pest treadmill: the continual application of pesticides that kills pests and pest controlling
organisms and creates dependency. With every application the pest outbreak can
increase as the pests build up resistance and their predators are killed off, causing the
farmers to become more dependent and use larger quantities of pesticides.
Pesticide: chemicals used to in farming to kill pests.
Pesticide resistance: tolerance developed by pests rendering the pest repellant product
useless.
Plastic Mulch: plastic made mulch that acts as a barrier to serve the same purposes as
traditional mulch.
Price premium: take the commodity price (this is usually the price quoted in the country
of origin or on the commodity market at a set time) and add a percentage increase (often
called a ‘price premium’). The objective of the price premium is to help both parties
arrive at a fairer price; one that is more likely to reflect the cost of production and
viability of the business.” (Textileexchange.org, 2013).
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EXPLORING THE INTERWOVEN RELATIONSHIP OF ECO-FASHION
Rotation: changing the species of crops after growing cycles to protect soil quality and
prevent pest outbreaks.
Risk: the potential of a loss as weighted against a potential gain.
Salinization: an increase of salt in the soil.
Social Responsibility: a company’s effort to go above the legal minimum and do what
they can to benefit society.
167
EXPLORING THE INTERWOVEN RELATIONSHIP OF ECO-FASHION
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