Insects as Food: Assessing the Food Conversion Efficiency of the Mealworm (Tenebrio molitor)

Item

Title

Eng Insects as Food: Assessing the Food Conversion Efficiency of the Mealworm (Tenebrio molitor)

Date

2013

Creator

Eng Spang, Brian

Subject

Eng Environmental Studies

extracted text

Insects as food: Assessing the food conversion efficiency
of the mealworm (Tenebrio molitor)

by
Brian Spang

A Thesis
Submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree
Master of Environmental Studies
The Evergreen State College
December 2013

© 2013 by Brian Spang. All rights reserved.

This Thesis for the Master of Environmental Studies Degree
by
Brian Spang
has been approved for
The Evergreen State College
by
________________________
Kevin J Francis}
Member of the Faculty

________________________
Date

ABSTRACT
Insects as food: Assessing the food conversion efficiency
of the mealworm (Tenebrio molitor)
Brian Spang
The use of insects as a source of food for human populations is gaining interest
among small groups of researchers and entrepreneurs. One obstacle currently faced
by this movement is the need to identify specific insects that can be raised and
processed in a manner that is economically and environmentally sustainable. This
thesis looks specifically at the Darkling beetle (Tenebrio molitor), and investigates
the conversion efficiency of ingested food of the larva over the course of its
development. Efficiency of conversion of ingested food (ECI) is presented here at a
daily resolution. Data for this study was collected from ten cultures of mealworms
reared over a period of four weeks. Measured values of the final dry masses of the
mealworms was referenced with the expected initial dry masses and averaged for the
ECI of each day. ECI is a valuable metric in the context of food system science, as it
relates the amount of feed consumed by the insect to the amount of biomass (e.g.,
protein) gained by the insect. Such a measurement is important because it can be
used to demonstrate both the economic feasibility of rearing a particular insect as well
as the environmental impact the production process has on available resources. The
results of this study are compared to similar metrics available for livestock.
Implications of these results in terms of large-scale production are also discussed.
Mealworm larvae reared had a final mean ECI of 0.3357 and average mass of 0.0491
g over the course of the 25-day observation period.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS…………………………………………………………..…iv
LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………...……..….vi
LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………...………………..……..vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………………………………………...………….....…viii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION……………………………………………...…...1
BACKGROUND…………………………………………………………...…3
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE……………..…………………9
TENEBRIO MOLITOR – BASIC BIOLOGY………………………..……..11
ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES……………...…………………..……14
NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF MEALWORMS…………………………..…17
CURRENT STATUS OF PRODUCTION……………………….…….……23
THE NATURE OF LIVESTOCK AND ITS SUSTAINABILITY…….……25
UNDERSTANDING FOOD UTILIZATION OF INSECTS………………..27
CHAPTER 3: METHODS……….…………….………………….....….…………30
SETUP……………………..…………………………………………..…….30
DATA COLLECTION………………………………………………..……..35
ANALYSIS…………………………………………………………..………39
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS……………………….………………………….………41
EFFICIENCY OF CONVERSION OF INGESTED FOOD (ECI)……….....41
CHAPTER5: DISCUSSION……..……………….……………………....….…….48
MEALWORMS COMPARED TO CONVENTIONAL LIVESTOCK……..48

iv

INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS…………………………………..…….49
ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS AND RECCOMENDATIONS……..….51
CHAPTER 6: FINAL THOUGHTS…………………………………………..…..55
REFERENCES……………………..……..………………………………………..56

v

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure

Page

2.1

Tenebrio molitor…………………………………………………………12

3.1

Laboratory climate……………………………………………………….32

3.2

Mealworm cultures………………………………………………...…….34

3.3

Mealworm larvae………………………………….……………………..35

3.4

Sample cups……………………….………………………………….….36

3.5

Mealworm frass………………………………………………………….38

3.6

Dried mealworms………………...………………………………………39

4.1

Box plots – Raw data………………………………………….…………42

4.2

Daily mean ECI and larvae mass……………………………….………..44

4.3

Daily mean ECI and pupae………………………………………………46

4.4

Box plots – Corrected data………………………………………………47

5.1

ECI of cattle……………………...………………………………………48

5.2

Trial 1 data……………………………………………………………….51

5.3

Mealworm frass under magnification……………...…………………….53

vi

LIST OF TABLES

Table

Page

2.1

Protein values of select insects and livestock……………….……..……..19

2.2

Mealworm protein values……………………………………….………..22

4.1

Daily mean ECI, mass, feed ingested, and pupae……………….……….45

5.1

ECI of select insects and livestock……………………………………….49

vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank the following people for assisting me in the completion of this
thesis:

Kevin Francis for keeping me on schedule, reading through my drafts, and assisting
with revisions. Erin Martin for reading through my initial proposals and providing
meaningful feedback. Library staff, especially interlibrary loan. Kaile Adney for
providing much needed logistical support. Alberto Napuli for support as my
scientific instructional technician. All of the folks at Evergreen’s Science Support
Center, especially the person(s) responsible for tracking down my missing analytical
balance late one Friday afternoon. All of the MES faculty and staff for support,
guidance, and sharing your knowledge and expertise. A big thanks to Gail Wootan
for being incredible at everything. David Gracer for keeping in contact with me
throughout this process, for sharing knowledge, and for assisting with contacts –
many thanks. Kristin Ramsdell for helping with the initial setup and for turning me
on to mealworm cookies. Katie Wolt for reviewing drafts. Kara Karboski for help
with those graphs. Brian Jenson for all of the wonderfully positive encouragement.
All of my belay partners for mindful attention, quick reflexes, and getting me away
from the computer. And everyone else who has given support and advice – thank
you.

viii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

The use of insects as a source of food for human populations is gaining
interest, albeit at a slow pace and only by a select few researchers and entrepreneurs.
One obstacle currently faced by this movement is the need to identify specific insects
that can be raised and processed in a manner that is economically and
environmentally sustainable. This thesis looks specifically at larvae of the Darkling
beetle (Tenebrio molitor), and investigates the food conversion efficiency of the
insect over the course of its development. The potential of various other insects as a
food source will briefly be presented as will current trends of conventional livestock
production. Food conversion efficiency of conventional livestock will be presented
alongside that of T. molitor. It is intended for this comparison to demonstrate the
advantage T. molitor has over conventional livestock in terms of resource demand
(specifically, consumption of feed).
T. molitor (hereafter mealworm), of the insect order Coleoptera, is regarded
by global food system specialists as a potentially valuable source of food for humans
(Durst and Shono, 2010; Martin et al., 1976; Vantomme et al., 2012). In terms of
value as a food source, mealworms, and indeed insects in general, have yet to receive
significant attention beyond niche social groups. They do, however, represent a novel
source of nourishment with obvious advantages over conventional food types. As is
the case with many insect species, mealworms are quick to reproduce, require little
care, can be raised in small spaces, and produce nutritional values that rival beef,
pork, and poultry. Despite these general characteristics, the literature available on the

1

rearing and physiology of mealworms falls short of addressing the food conversion
efficiency of the larvae. Furthermore, of the literature documenting food conversion
efficiency of other insects, no published studies of food conversion efficiency at a
daily resolution have been identified.
Fraenkel (1950) provides a thorough report on the nutritional needs of T.
molitor larvae, citing development under varying conditions of temperature and
humidity, and variations in the diet provided. This study pays close attention to the
weight gain of the larvae over the study period but neglects to analyze the amount of
food consumed or excrement produced and thus lacks a manner of reporting on
efficiency of conversion of food.
Efficiency of food conversion is a valuable metric in the context of food
system science, as it relates the amount of feed consumed by the insect to the amount
of biomass (e.g., protein) the insect produces. Such a measurement is important
because it can be used to demonstrate both the economic feasibility of rearing a
particular insect as well as the environmental impact the production process might
have on available resources.
Presently, the artificial rearing of insects in the United States serves to fulfill
the demands of three primary markets: exotic pet feed; livestock/aquaculture feed;
and laboratory research. These markets are interested in ease and cost-effectiveness
of production, nutritional value of insects, and the physiological and behavioral
characteristics associated with pest management. This thesis aims to provide greater
insight into the feasibility of raising insects as a food source. As such, it focuses
specifically on the capacity of T. molitor to produce a sustainable alternative to

2

conventional meat products. Furthermore, a secondary aim of this thesis is to
increase our understanding of the methodology employed to quantify the food
conversion efficiency of insects. There is currently little data available on this metric
and that which is published remains questionable in terms of consistency. Methods
for this calculation come in the form of both arithmetic and geometric formulas and
may pertain to both short term and long term observations. Still other formulas are
unique in that they differentiate between feed ingested and feed digested. As such,
the results presented here will help to clarify proper use and representation of
efficiency of conversion of ingested food (ECI) and aid in establishing consistency
for future research.

BACKGROUND
The current availability of resources to those interested in studying, raising, or
consuming insects as part of the human diet is relatively limited. At the same time
entomophagy (the practice of eating insects) has been identified as a potential practice
capable of alleviating food shortages, decreasing impacts of conventional livestock,
and improving nutrition in the human diet (Dusrt and Shono, 2010; Vantomme et al.,
2012; Gracer, 2010; Steinfeld et al., 2006; Mitushashi, 2010). The Food and
Agricultural Organization of the United Nations has identified edible insects as a
subject of priority for investigation and encourages the exploration of the many facets
entomophagy has to offer (Durst et al., 2010; Johnson, 2010). Much of the existing
literature on the subject is geographically centered in the South Pacific region but
numerous sources cite a growing interest in the applicability of entomophagy to the

3

food systems of the United States and other industrialized cultures (Gracer, 2010;
Vantomme et al., 2012; Durst et al., 2010).
Entomophagy may be a solution to current and future impediments to food
security (Thrupp, 2000; Daily et al, 1998) by reducing the dependency of societies on
large-scale mono-cultural food products. The raising of livestock, for example, is
focused on three primary animals (cattle, chicken, pigs), which make up a majority of
the meat consumed in the United States (Steinfeld et al., 2006). At the same time,
these livestock are increasingly raised under industrialized settings with a decreasing
degree of diversity in their diet and diversity among species and varieties. The result
is that there exists a vulnerability of society's food system to such factors as
population growth, terrorism, and climate change (Watson et al., 1997; Vantomme et
al, 2012; Gahuker 2011). In other words, this type of food production is experiencing
an increasing reliance on a decreasing set of variables, and a disruption in any one of
those variables could favor the odds of food shortage.
Entomophagy also exhibits the potential to resolve issues of environmental
degradation arising from conventional methods of food production. As stated,
conventional food systems, such as that of the United States, are highly invested in
the large-scale industrialized production of relatively few products. As such, there
exists unfavorable byproducts that tend to be generated at comparable scales
(Steinfeld et al, 2006). These byproducts range from air, water, and soil pollution to
the absorption of harmful chemicals into food products and the excessive allocation
of energy resources (Steinfeld et al., 2006; Watson et al., 2000). As indicated above,
conventional food production has a set of inputs and outputs associated with various

4

types of livestock. These include methane gas emitted from cattle and
hormones/steroids added to their diet.
Insects have been identified as a solution to these problems for a number of
reasons. First, they require relatively little input in terms of energy, feed, space, and
time. Second, they create relatively few outputs in terms of environmental wastes.
And third, based on existing data, they are a very concentrated source of protein
(Verkerk et al., 2007) along with containing high levels of essential fatty acids and
other micro-nutrients (vitamins/minerals) (Banjo et al., 2006; Bukkens, 1997; Fast,
1966; Xiaoming et al., 2010). Some research has been aimed at studying the
economic value of insects as a commercial product (primarily as a source of protein)
(Mercer, 1997; Watanabe and Satrawaha, 1997; Boulidam, 2010). This thesis has
been unable to identify documentation that compares the nutritional value or the
economic value of insect fatty acids to other sources.
In order for entomophagy to make an impact on our current food system
several issues need to be addressed. At present, there is a significant disparity
between the potential that entomophagy can offer in helping to secure the safety and
sustainability of our food system and the cultural biases and dietary preferences
exhibited by most people of the United States and other industrialized nations
(Gracer, 2010; Schonwald, 2012; Durst and Shono, 2010; Mitsuhashi, 2010)). In
addition to the cultural hurdles, the advancement of entomophagy is also obstructed
by a lack of an integrated network of researchers and producers specializing in the
field (Johnson, 2010). This has the affect of making it more difficult to disseminate
knowledge and discoveries amongst researchers. And considering that entomophagy

5

is regarded to be very much an interdisciplinary field, the development of a reliable
network to share research is that much more valuable. Beyond these social and
organizational barriers (which could possibly be successfully addressed through
educational outreach (Durst et al., 2010)), there is also a lack of knowledge in general
on the subject. Such areas of knowledge that need to be explored include: (1) the
ecology and biology of important edible insect species; (2) a clearer understanding of
the role insects would play in human nutrition; (3) the measurable benefits
entomophagy could have over those of current food production; and (4) methods of
commercial and personal production (Johnson, 2010; Dusrt et al, 2010; MeyerRochow, 2010).
In all cases encountered in the course of this research, insects produced by
means of foraging have been used as: (1) a food; (2) as a bait or feed for the
acquisition of higher trophic level food; or (3) as a preserved specimen (Mercer,
1997; Sutton, 1988,). This is in contrast to the farming of insects, in which the insects
appear to be raised: (1) as feed for captive, non-food animals; (2) for scientific
experimentation; or (3) for a byproduct (e.g., silk from the silk moth or honey from
the bee) produced by the insect (Grisdale, 1973; Singh and Moore, 1985; Hardouin,
1997; Beets, 1997). Katayama et al. (2005, 2006, 2008) are in a unique position as
they appear to be leaders in entomophagy research with the direction being extraterrestrial agriculture. They are investigating various methods in the lab that they
intend to apply to space agriculture models. The ranching of insects also has specific
uses that can be anticipated. Insects that are managed in natural settings tend to be:
consumed by livestock (free-range chickens); utilized for an insect byproduct (e.g.,

6

honey from bees); or for other purposes similar to those of foraging (Shinn, 1980;
Sutton, 1988; Defoliart, 1995, Hardouin, 1997; Boongird, 2010).
At present, research on the use of edible insects within society is taking place
in areas such as Africa, Indonesia, China, Mexico, and Australia (Banjo, 2006;
Mercer, 1997; Ramos-Elorduya, 1997; Yen, 2010; Ramandy and Mastrigt, 2010;
Onore, 1997; Zhi-Yi,1997), with very little attention addressing the role or potential
role of these insects in industrialized western nations. As pointed out, several of the
arguments for the increase use of insects as food comes from a collection of problems
stemming from and facing industrialized western nations. For this reason, it makes
sense to pursue an investigation of the incorporation of entomophagy into these
societies. In a recent publication released by the Food and Agricultural Organization
of the United Nations (Dusrt et al., 2010), it has been recommended that these
investigations, in regards to entomophagy across global societies and cultures,
address a number of key issues, among them:

•

Conduct research on the ecology and life cycle of edible insects.

•

Conduct research on the management potential of wild edible insects
to enhance harvests, to ensure sustainability in nature and to assess
potential for rearing of promising species.

•

Assess the economic feasibility of rearing manageable insects,
examining its potential to contribute to rural food stocks and
development.

7

•

Promote the adoption of local insects as an element of government
strategy for rural development and agricultural diversification where
applicable.
(Durst et al., 2010)

The content of this thesis will be most applicable to the first and third bullet
points listed above. Through the analysis of the ECI, the research presented herein
can be directly related to and incorporated into the existing knowledge of the
mealworm's physiology and its growth cycle. This thesis will also support the
advancement of our understanding of economic feasibility of large-scale production
by assessing how the daily ECI of mealworms compares to that of other food sources.
ECI can be used as a metric in food production science for the purpose of identifying
unnecessary financial investments in regards to animal production.

8

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

As indicated in the introductory chapter, there is much to consider in terms of
the applicability of the mealworm to the future of the human food system. In this
chapter a review of the existing literature will provide greater insight into specific
aspects of the future of entomophagy, summarize those areas of the field that are
currently lacking, and establish a rationale for the focus of the remainder of this
study. Key points that will be addressed include: the biology and physiological
development of mealworms, nutritional content of mealworms, current rearing
technology, impediments to production and markets, and comparisons with the
production of conventional livestock. Of particular interest is research-to-date that
relates food utilization efficiencies of mealworms to that of cattle and other livestock,
and how a more thorough understanding of this concept can aid in establishing
reliable mass-rearing endeavors.
The field of research specializing in entomophagy is a relatively new
academic discipline. As such, there are few resources available to those interested in
pursuing published information. One of the most recent additions to the modest body
of literature was released in 2010 by the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO)
of the United Nations. That document, titled “Forest insects as food: Humans bite
back,” is a volume of 21 essays that specifically addresses the potential role of insects
in today's changing world. Along with “Forest insects as food,” the FAO is
responsible for several other publications aimed at encouraging the advancement of
entomophagy in a systematic manner.

9

Preceding “Forest insects as food” was the periodical “The Food Insects
Newsletter,” which was published from 1988 to 2000. This newsletter, spearheaded
by Gene DeFoliart of the University of Wisconsin, took a grassroots approach to the
sharing of knowledge about anything and everything related to entomophagy. With
the inclusion of content from both professional researchers and casual practitioners it
is a valuable resource for those interested in understanding the history of
entomophagy over the past 25 years.
In addition to the two works highlighted above, the journal “Ecology of Food
and Nutrition” published a special issue in 1997 that focuses on various aspects of
insects as food. A final source worth noting is not in the form of a specific piece of
literature but rather an academic department at a research university in the
Netherlands. During the last few years, Wageningen University has begun to emerge
as a leader in entomopahgy research. One of the more recent articles put out by
Wageningen assesses the environmental impact of mealworms as a food for humans
(Oonincx and de Boer, 2012). These four sources appear to encapsulate the most
thorough content of literature on the subject of entomophagy to date.
Aside from the sources mentioned above, little else was identified as
specifically addressing entomophagy. Much of the remaining literature pertinent to
this study has been published in either entomological or zoological journals, and in
some cases animal husbandry and agricultural journals.
As indicated in the introductory chapter, there is much to consider in terms of
the applicability of the mealworm to the future of the human food system. In this
chapter a review of the existing literature will provide greater insight into specific

10

aspects of the future of entomophagy, summarize those areas of the field that are
currently lacking, and establish a rationale for the focus of the remainder of this
study. Key points that will be addressed include: the biology and physiological
development of mealworms, nutritional content of mealworms, current rearing
technology, impediments to production and markets, and comparisons with the
production of conventional livestock. Of particular interest is research-to-date that
relates food utilization efficiencies of mealworms to that of cattle and other livestock,
and how a more thorough understanding of this concept can aid in establishing
reliable mass-rearing endeavors.

TENEBRIO MOLITOR – BASIC BIOLOGY
The mealworm beetle (Tenebrio molitor) is a member of the Tenebrionidae
family of the insect order Coleoptera. It is relatively well known as both a pest of
stored food products (e.g., cereals and grains) and as a feeder insect for captive
insectivorous animals (e.g., birds and reptiles). The mealworm is cosmopolitan in
distribution and, as it has trouble breeding in the tropics, will be found primarily in
temperate regions at northern latitudes (Hill, 2003; Bousquet, 1990). Like all insects
of the superorder Endopterygota, the mealworm beetle exhibits holometabolism, or
complete metamorphosis, in which the insect develops through a series of four stages
in its life cycle – embryo (egg), larva, pupa, and imago (adult). Development within
the larval stage may be further distinguished by the number of instars (molts) the
insect experiences as it grows prior to pupating. As many as 22 instars have been
reported by Ludwig (1956). It is at the larval stage in which this insect is regarded as

11

a suitable food. The entire life cycle will take place in the same ecosystem, that being
the foodstuff occupied and eaten by the insect.

Figure 2.1 – Tenebrio molitor adult (left) (USDA,a) and larvae (right).

Hill (2003) provides a brief description of the life stages of the mealworm and
several related species. Upon mating the female will lay up to 500 eggs over. The
egg stage is the shortest period of the cycle. The eggs present as tiny, white,
spherical, sticky masses that will hatch in 10 to 12 days at temperatures of
approximately 20° C. During the larval stage, which from reported estimates can
vary from about one month to over a year, the mealworm will go through 9-20 molts,
or instars. These molting periods are characterized by larval growth and the shedding
of the exoskeleton, of which contains a relatively high amount indigestible chitin.
The larvae appear as yellow-brown in color and are smooth and cylindrical, and can
grow to 28 mm in length. The pupal stage is characterized by a final molt along with
12

a complete loss of the carapace which serves as a distinct protective plate above the
head and thorax. The pupa will curl ventrally inward along its longitudinal axis and
undergo a final metamorphosis of approximately 20 days. It was observed during this
study that the pupae appeared to be relatively dormant. The only signs of movement
was a twisting of the body in response to touch. No records were kept on those larvae
that entered the pupal stage but in general it seems as though the pupal stage was
shorter than the 20 days reported by Hill (2003).
The adult beetle emerges as an off-white color, gradually darkening to dark
reddish-brown to black and is approximately 15 mm in length. Their life expectancy
at this point is approximately 1-3 months. The total length of the life cycle is
reported to be 280-630 days. It should be noted that the duration of the various stages
of the life cycle can be shortened or lengthened depending upon environmental
conditions (Martin et al, 1976; Connat et al., 1991; Hill, 2003). Although temperature
and humidity may play primary roles in the onset of pupation it has also been
reported that some commercial facilities will manipulate the population of larvae to
such high densities that they will in fact not enter into the pupal state (Connat et al.,
1991). Additionally, although the mealworm remains conspicuous, compared to
other insects pests it is said to be a low threat to stored foodstuffs. This is due to its
slow rate of reproduction and small populations and thus any damage incurred by the
stored product will remain limited (Hill, 2003).
A very closely related species to the mealworm is the mini mealworm
(Tenebrio obscurus), differing phenotypically by a smaller size (12-19 mm) and
darker exoskeleton. T. obscurus is also known to develop faster, attributed to an

13

appreciably shorter larval stage (Hill, 2003). Other related species include those of
the Tribolium genus, notably T. confusum (confused flour beetle) and T. castaneum
(red flour beetle), and also the superworm, Zophobas morio. In addition to moderate
variation in the physical appearance of the two species of Tribolium (adults will grow
only to 3-4 mm long) from that of T. molitor, they differ also by exhibiting a
relatively shorter anticipated life cycle and being more likely to cause considerable
damage to stored food products. Both Tribolium species are likely to practice
cannibalism, which is reported to be an important factor in controlling their
populations. The major difference between the two is that, like T. molitor, T.
cunfusum is found more often in cooler northern latitudes whereas T. castaneum
thrives in warmer regions. Z. morio is notable for its slightly larger size and smaller
amounts of chitin, and for this reason could be worth the attention of future
entomophagy (entomophagical) studies. Similar to T. molitor, Z. morio is currently
reared as a feed for reptiles, albeit on a considerably smaller scale. These four
species are also regarded as common pests of stored food products (e.g., grains and
cereals), and like the mealworm, the larvae are also reared for use as a live food for
captive insectivorous animals (primarily birds and reptiles).

ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES
A number of environmental (extrinsic) factors will invariably influence rate
and extent of the development of T. molitor larvae (Martin et al., 1976; Connat et al.,
1991; Wallach, 1972). Among these are temperature (Ludwig, 1956), humidity (Urs
and Hopkins, 1973; Pielou and Gunn, 1940), diet/nutrition (Fraenkel, 1950)),

14

photoperiod (Tyschchenko and Sheyk Ba, 1986), stress (Weaver and McFarlane,
1990, Connat et al., 1991), and pathogens (Shea, 2005a,b). Although it is difficult to
say which of these factors might induce the most profound effect on larval
development, most of the studies indicating specific parameters of the rearing
methods regularly cite temperature and relative humidity as meaningful variables.
Appropriate rearing temperature for T. molitor larvae is debatable but in
general any temperature between 20º C and 30º C would be entirely sufficient for
larval survival. Ludwig (1956) and Ludwig and Fiore (1960) have observed that not
only will the duration of the larval period increase under colder temperatures but the
number of instars will also increase – with up to 22 such molts being observed
(Cotton, 1927). Results of these studies (Ludwig, 1956; Ludwig and Fiore, 1960)
indicate that as rearing temperature increases from 25º C to 30º C so to do the speed
of growth and the number of molts. Martin et al. (1976) present the only identified
study with rearing temperatures as low as 20º C. They also report that temperatures
above 35º C are “unstable,” and that death is imminent at 40º C. Most studies
referenced herein cite 25º-27º C as the recommended rearing temperature.
The range of acceptable relative humidity for the rearing of T. molitor larvae
is between 13% and 70% (Martin et al, 1976). At the low end it is reported that no
growth occurs although food intake remains constant (Fraenkel et al., 1950).
Additionally, it has been reported that mealworm cultures reared at low humidity
levels may result in cannibalism (Wallach, 1972). And humidity above 70% is likely
to result in the growth of molds in the culture with the risk of high mortality rates. It
is also reported that at a humidity above 70% food intake by the larvae will drop

15

appreciably, though they will continue to grow (Martin et al.,1976). The continued
growth of the larvae coupled with the absence of increased food intake may be
attributed to the insect's ability to assimilate atmospheric moisture through
specialized glands in its rectum (Machin, 1976). Martin et al. (1976) report a
difference in mass of 50 mg between larvae reared at 30% relative humidity and those
reared at 70%. Similarly, Mellanby (1932) reports that at a rearing humidity between
0% and 90%, those larvae that are subjected to higher humidity will consistently
retain more weight than those subjected to lower humidity.
In regards to those studies referenced above it is unclear as to whether or not
growth and weight gain cited by the authors is in terms of either water weight or
biomass. This point will be addressed in the discussion section as it could imply a
relative humidity value that favors a more efficient conversion of food into biomass
than either higher or lower values. Key points to understand regarding humidity
levels are as follows: (1) At low enough levels biomass gain of the larvae will
stagnate despite the continued ingestion of food. (2) As humidity levels increase so
to does the risk that harmful molds may become established. (3) Further research
may by advisable so as to better understand the effect of increased humidity on
biomass gain.
Although the influence of stress in the onset of metamorphosis of T. molitor
larvae has at times been overlooked (Connat et al., 1991), it remains an important
factor in assessing overall development. As reported by Weaver and McFarlane
(1990) and Connat et al (1991), a positive correlation exists between an increase in
stress and a decrease in developmental progression. Weaver and McFarlane highlight

16

the role that high larval densities have on stress. Their results show that at high larval
densities (20 individuals per 4.5 L jar as opposed to 1 individual per 4.5 L jar) the
percent survival of larvae at pupation decreases by close to 50%. These findings may
be closely related to the available oxygen in the rearing chamber, whereby a greater
number of larvae developing as a group in a finite space might use up the available
oxygen thus creating a hypoxic environment and ultimately death (Greenberg and Ar,
1996). Connat et al. (1991) also note that high larval density has been observed to
lead to some cases of cannibalism amongst the larvae.

NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF MEALWORMS
According to Martin et al. (1976), there is little information available on the
nutritional value of mealworms. They also note that their own efforts at documenting
such data “have raised more questions than they have answered” (Martin et al., 1976).
Despite this supposed lack of reliable records of nutritional values for mealworms,
several publication report information such as protein, fat, vitamins and minerals.
These reports will be used as a reference for establishing general expectations of
mealworm protein values and for comparison of the results presented in this study, as
well as understanding differences in how protein values can be measured and
presented.
The following three studies report protein content for mealworms. In each of
the studies, the protein content of the larvae is expressed as a percent and is based on
the insect’s dry weight. The values are calculated by multiplying the analyzed
nitrogen content by 6.25. Jones et al. (1972) also provide a value for protein content

17

(22.32%) obtained from fresh (wet) larvae samples as opposed to dried. Jones et al.
(1972) report protein at 52.8%, Redford and Dorea (1984) at 54.5%, and Davis and
Sosulski (1974) at 47.2% to 69.0%. Davis and Sosulski provide a range due to the
fact that they were interested in the change of protein content over the course of larval
stage. In this case the lower percentage (47.2%) is obtained from the larvae which
have gone through a longer period of development and the higher percentage (69.0%)
is obtained from those that experienced a comparatively shorter period of growth.
Clearly, these figures demonstrate that over the course of development the larvae had
diminishing protein content despite overall positive mass increase.
Table 2.1 provides an overview of various animal and insect meat types along
with their corresponding protein content. Unless otherwise noted the values for the
insects were obtained from dried, uncooked samples and represent only the portion of
the insect that is customarily consumed. For example, the legs of crickets are
typically removed prior to eating. The protein values of the animal meat were
obtained from raw, fresh (not dried) samples and, again, have been cleaned of
inedible tissue (e.g., hide, bones, etc.). Although there does exist a discrepancy
between percent protein obtained from dry versus wet samples, a good reference
point can be established with the dried sample of cattle.
The data presented in Table 2.1 have been calculated using the Kjeldahl
technique of crude protein estimation. This technique utilizes a set of established
ratios for the conversion of nitrogen content of various types of food/protein tissue

18

Table 2.1 – Mealworm data is from larvae of the T. molitor species. All values of
protein presented in the table were determined via the Kjeldahl technique (nitrogen ×
6.25). See text for further explanation concerning Kjeldahl technique.

into a crude protein equivalent (Jones, 1941). In the case of animal meat and insect
tissue the conversion is percent nitrogen multiplied by 6.25.

19

The problems associated with a reliable quantification of nutrient values of a
foodstuff (Stewart, 1997) is threefold: 1) variation of nutrient content among samples
analyzed, 2) the degree to which that variation may be affected by different rearing
methods, and 3) how the physiology of the consumer (i.e., humans) responds to the
nutrients (Martin et al., 1976). This last point can be looked at as the percentage of
crude protein of a food versus the quality of that protein. It has discussed by Jones
(1931) that amount of measured protein in a food is not in itself an accurate
assessment of the usable protein. Because crude protein is merely extrapolated from
the measured nitrogen content it falls short of quantifying the presence, type, and
amount of amino acids (i.e., the “quality” proteins) that are actually processed by the
human body (Jones, 1931).
It is useful to note here that chitin (C8H13O5N)n, is a long-chain polymer
sharing similarities to both cellulose and keratin. It is a primary constituent in insect
exoskeletons, be that adult shells or larval molts, and has for the most part been
considered to be indigestible by humans (Bukkens, 1997; Paoletti et al., 2007). Due
to this structural similarity between chitin and cellulose, it has also been widely
assumed that the fiber in insects represents chitin (Finke, 2007). Finke points out,
however, that a customary approach to estimating the chitin content of insects likely
results in overestimates of that chitin which is actually present. Due to the relatively
small amount of chitin, and thus nitrogen in the form of chitin, Finke goes on to
justify the rational of regarding crude protein content of insects as a reasonable
estimate of the true protein. The premise of Finke is that the less nitrogen in the form

20

of chitin (i.e., indigestible protein) then the more nitrogen must be present in the form
of true protein (metabolically digestible).
Paoletti et al. (2007) seek to provide a greater depth of understanding of the
role chitin plays in the digestion of insect-consuming peoples. They attribute the
presence of enzymes capable of digesting chitin to the combination of a person's
lower socio-economic status (and thus the ensuing cultural norm diet) and genetic
ancestry. Their discussion of findings credits a person's potential to assimilate chitin
with that person's history of insect consumption.
Martin et al. (1976) provide an analysis of three treatments used for sampling
mealworms: one group was reared from egg to adult in the lab, one group was reared
acquired as larvae from a supplier and subsequently reared in the lab, and the third
group was used as is from a commercial supplier. Methods for the first group
(sample A) consisted of setting up a colony of 200 commercially supplied mealworms
in a 19 L enclosure. The rearing medium consisted of wheat bran, oats, and apple. It
was maintained at 12 hours light and 12 dark each day with average temperature and
relative humidity of 20-23°C and 35-70%, respectively. The larvae were harvested
after two weeks. The second treatment group (sample B) was reared in 800 cm2
containers with a mixture of flour, bran, yeastamin, and vionate. This sceond group
of cultures was maintained in such a manner to facilitate the entire life cycle of the
insect. The third group (sample C) was acquired at the larval stage from a supplier
upon which they were immediately prepared for nutritional analysis. The primary
objective of their study was to determine differences in nutritional value between
commercially obtained mealworms and those that were homegrown.

21

Martin et al. report the results of this study along with a discussion of the
complications associated with the interpretation of the available data. Despite the
issues in securing reliable data, a moderate collection of published data has been
identified for the establishment of reference metrics for use in this study. These
sources (cited below), along with the analysis provided by Martin et al. (1976), serve
as a reference for establishing estimates of protein, fat, and vitamins/minerals of T.
molitor larvae. Results of the Martin et al (1976) analysis indicate that there was little
difference in nutrient content amongst the three experimental groups. The results
shown in Table 2.2 below are for protein and represent final larvae weight at time of
collection.

Table 2.2 – Percent crude protein of mealworm samples A, B, and C (Martin et al.,
1976).

The protein values presented by Martin et al. (1976) are largely consistent
with those provided by similar studies. Furthermore, there was only slight variation
of protein values within the three experimental groups surveyed, with a difference of
only 5.3% (55.0%, 56.4%, and 60.3%). Similarly, total fat content varied by only 5.6
percent between the three groups (31.3%, 35.5%, and 36.7%). Percent protein, again
as measured by dry weight, is reported by Jones et al. (1972) and Allen and Oftedal
(1994) to be 52.82% and 48%, respectively. Although beyond the scope of this
paper, an extensive survey of the biochemistry of various feeds and feed additives on
22

the protein production capacity of T. molitor larvae is presented by Davis and
Sosulski (1972).

CURRENT STATUS OF PRODUCTION
Practically speaking, no established methods for the large-scale, industrial
production of mealworms currently exists. That is to say, the methods that are
currently being used are at a scale inconsistent with anticipated future demand
(Gracer, 2010). Those methods are primarily aimed at producing mealworms to
supply the demand of the pet food industry and, to a lesser degree, scientific research
and as chicken feed. Additionally, there does exist a fringe sector of private corporate
interests that are developing methods of large-scale production, however these
methods are being protected as proprietary and therefore inaccessible to the public
(Kok, personal communication, 2013).
Although not at a point in its development where one can expect to see
implementation in the immediate future, the mass rearing of insects has become a
subject of formal study. As an example, Kok et al. (1988) have published the results
of their trials with what they refer to as an “insect farm.” Their purpose aims to
develop reliable methods for the mass production of the larvae of Tenebrio confusum,
confused flour beetle (a close relative of T. molitor) as a human food product.
Although they indicate moderate success in rearing, there remain aspects of the
process that have prevented its immediate implementation. Notably, there is a need
to increase the output of the system, incorporate the use of an inexpensive, cellulose

23

feed (e.g., agwaste), analyze the economics of the process, and identify a consumer
for the waste generated.
As discussion of production methods continues among scholars, it should be
noted that there exists reports of allergic reaction upon exposure to T. molitor
(Schroekenstein et al., 1990). Persons suffering from this allergic reaction present
with symptoms of rhinoconjuctivitis and include the following: nasal congestion,
runny nose, post-nasal drip, sneezing, red eyes (conjunctivitis), and itching of the
nose or eyes. During the winter and spring of 2013, the principle investigator of this
thesis exhibited similar symptoms, notably nasal congestion, runny nose, post-nasal
drip, sneezing. The pathway of infection was not apparent. Initial attempts of
reducing airborne exposure to allergens by use of an N95 respirator was unsuccessful.
During a period of five days away from the cultures symptoms abated and general
health improved. Upon returning to the lab for data collection of the cultures,
disposable nitrile gloves were worn along with an N95 respirator. Gloves and mask
were utilized throughout the remainder of the study and no further signs or symptoms
of allergic reaction were observed. Ironically, despite that personal protective
barriers were not utilized during the fall of 2013, no signs or symptoms of allergic
reaction were experienced. The potential of T. molitor to induce allergic reaction or
other adverse health effects remains questionable and should be more closely
scrutinized as entomophagy studies move forward.

24

THE NATURE OF LIVESTOCK AND ITS SUSTAINABILITY
As is the case with cattle livestock, it is hypothesized that there exists a peak
or plateau of food conversion efficiency in insects in which resources invested in the
insect's growth will gradually begin to result in diminishing returns. The intent of this
study is to investigate the sustainability and supposed low environmental impact of
the production of T. molitor larvae. For this purpose, sustainable production is
considered to be that which requires a minimum of environmental inputs in the form
of mealworm feed. The sustainable production of livestock, specifically cattle (beef),
will be used here to demonstrate the potential of mealworms to meet the protein
requirements of human consumers. Cattle production is of interest because beef is
currently one of the most highly consumed sources of protein in developed countries
at approximately 80 kg per person per year. And over the next 15 to 40 years
consumption is projected to rise dramatically in developing and transition countries
from a current rate of approximately 30 kg per person per year (Steinfeld, 2006). At
the same time, cattle production requires more resources in the form of land, water,
and feed than any other agricultural product.
Livestock production has been reported to be the “single largest user of
anthropogenic land (Steinfeld, 2006),” accounting for 70 percent of all agricultural
land and 30 percent of the Earth's land surface. These resource consumption patterns
ultimately translate into a complex suite of environmental problems in the from of air,
water, and land pollution (Steinfeld, 2006).
In order to make livestock production more efficient (both economically and
environmentally) certain parameters have been closely studied, the findings of which

25

have been implemented into current practices. One of these parameters is the
efficiency with which cattle will convert feed into biomass (Kilpatrick and Steen,
1999). Simply put, a livestock animal will reach a maximum size in which the feed
that continues to be consumed will have little impact on growth. To feed an animal
beyond its point of significant growth will result in a loss of profits due to excessive
feeding costs along with a loss of investment in natural resource to the animal’s
metabolic activity.
Kilpatrick and Steen (1999) offer a two-component model for the process of
beef cattle production. They indicate that the proposed model is necessary for
effectively managing for the effects that the provided feed has on growth rate and
carcass composition (i.e. marketable meat). First, an accurate assessment of the
amount of food consumed “ad libitum” by the cattle must be maintained. And
second, there must be an accurate assessment of the resulting diet intake on growth
rate and carcass composition. They cite a study published by the Department of
Agriculture of Northern Ireland (1987) that indicates a lack of accuracy in previous
equations used to predict growth rate and carcass weight (Agricultural Research
Council, 1980).
In their attempt at producing a model for the reliable prediction of cattle
growth rate and carcass weight Kilpatrick and Steen (1999) identified two potential
approaches: (1) an empirical approach in which relationships are derived from
experimental data and (2) a mechanistic approach in which attempts are made to
simulate energy metabolism of biological processes (France et al., 1987). Their
rejection of the mechanistic approach and acceptance of the empirical approach as a

26

framework for their model parallels methods utilized by Slansky (1985) and Farrar et
al., (1989) in their assessments of similar models used for quantification of growth
rates and biomass gains in insects.

UNDERSTANDING FOOD UTILIZATION OF INSECTS
Food utilization efficiency is the standard by which insects can be assessed for
physiological responses to food consumption (Waldbauer, 1968; Slansky, 1985;
Farrar et al., 1989). According to Slansky, “[...when coupled with measures of
consumption rate, food utilization efficiency helps identify the reasons for changes in
consumer growth rate and developmental time, such as those related to changes in
nutritional quality of food (Slansky, 1985).]” There exists a variety of metrics for the
quantification of insect feeding behavior. A thorough analysis of those metrics are
provided by both Slansky (1985) and Farrar et al. (1989). Each of their individual
purposes is to clarify the strengths and weaknesses of the various methods used
within the literature and to offer solutions to the inconsistencies that are identified.
Slansky (1985) reviews the available literature on insect consumption data and
corresponding food utilization efficiencies for the purpose of assessing: 1) possible
methodological sources error, and 2) discrepancies between calculations of dry mass
values and energy units values. Three food utilization efficiencies are noted by
Slansky as the most commonly referenced: approximate digestibility (AD), efficiency
of conversion of digested food (ECD), and efficiency of conversion of ingested food
(ECI). ECI is a direct measure of body mass gained relative to the amount of food
ingested (total consumption), whereas ECD ignores food that passes through the

27

insect undigested. ECI is also presented by Farrar et al. (1989) in a critical evaluation
of the various methods used in calculating insect consumption rates and growth rates.
Because the goal of this study is to identify growth patterns of mealworms (in the
form of harvestable biomass) relative to the investment in primary resources (e.g.,
food), it is ECI that is of primary interest.
Results of Slansky's (1985) study identify the following factors as potential
sources of error in final efficiency calculations. Implications of these errors along
with the associated discussion encourage and reaffirm the use of ECI based on dry
weight values as the metric of choice for this study.

1) Conversion of dry weight values to energy values.
2) Inconsistencies between the environments of experimental samples.
3) Evaporation from the feed being mistaken as consumed food.
4) Incomplete assessment of biomass produced (i.e., ignoring shed exoskeletons).
5) Energy values based on dry weight as opposed to ash-free dry weight .
6) Improper/inadequate sample preparation.
7) Improper manipulation of equipment (i.e., failing to calibrate and/or
replicate/verify findings).

Farrar et al. (1989) focus on a slightly different aspect of the quantification of
food utilization in insects. They are primarily interested in determining: 1) the merits
of an arithmetic versus geometric approach to calculations of food consumption and
growth, and 2) the appropriateness of initial insect weights versus mean insect weight

28

in regards to the length of the experiment (e.g., period of growth). The arithmetic
approach calculates the mean insect weight by adding the initial and final masses and
then dividing the sum by 2. The geometric approach multiplies the initial and final
weights and then takes the square root of the product. Farrar et al. (1989) cite studies
by Gordon (1968), Klein & Kogan (1974), and Kogan (1986) in which arguments are
made for geometric as opposed to arithmetic calculations because of the tendency of
insects to exhibit exponential rather than linear trends in growth. Farrar et al. (1989)
point out that this is likely to be true only in cases where the period of observation
spans more than one instar of the insect's larval growth. Such metrics would be of
interest for the purpose of predicting the loss of stored grains from insect pest
consumption. This study adopts the arithmetic rather geometric approach as it seems
to be the most universal for purposes of data comparison.

29

CHAPTER 3: METHODS

SETUP
This study was conducted over the course of two distinct periods during the
spring of 2013 (February – May) and fall of 2013 (October – November). The spring
period will be referred to as Trial 1 and the fall period will be referred to as Trial 2.
Both periods took place in laboratory facilities located in campus buildings of the
Evergreen State College, Olympia, Washington (47.03° N, 122.9° W). Unless
otherwise noted these methods and ensuing analysis/results are in reference
specifically to the period of October to November, 2013 (Trial 2). Due to
circumstances beyond the control of this researcher, Trial 2 was relocated from from
one lab building to a second lab building. This relocation occurred on Day 20 of the
study. Other than a change in environmental conditions (i.e., temperature and
humidity – recorded with a data logger) there was no other variation in the lab setup.
The temperature of the lab varied from approximately 20°C to 23°C (68-74°F) and
the relative humidity averaged approximately 25-30% (see Figure 3.1). Temperature
and relative humidity were recorded via a Vernier LabQuest data logger. The logger
was programed to record six measurements per hour. The photo regime in the room
was influenced most strongly by daylight and consequently reflected the pattern of
sunrise and sunset. No attempt was made to maintain a strict or consistent
photoregime or to control for the influence of artificial lighting within the room.
Several factors contributed to choosing Rainbow Mealworms as the source to
supply the needed larvae. First, the company offers several sizes of mealworms. The

30

choice of mealworm size is helpful because it provides the opportunity to focus the
data collection on a specific stage of the larvae development. In this case, due to the
relatively short time period available to conduct the study, the medium larvae were
selected. The mini mealworms were selected for the first trial of this study because of
the relatively young age associated with this size. The young age of the mealworms
thus provides a more representative record of the larvae development to pupation.
Second, whereas many other suppliers ship their mealworms directly in the
mealworm's substrate, Rainbow Mealworms ships their larvae in a newspaper
medium.
There are two benefits of this type of packaging. The mealworms will have a
relatively empty gut upon arrival, thus establishing a more reliable baseline for
beginning this study. Also, the absence of a substrate means the larvae will not have
to be subjected to the arduous process of separation from a substrate prior to being
placed in the bins prepared for this study. A final reason for selecting this source is
because of the company's specialization in mealworms. This in turn provides reliable
assurance of the quality of their product. Drawbacks to this method of acquisition
include uncertainties resulting from the long transit. The mealworms were in transit
for approximately 48 hours spanning a distance of roughly 1,000 miles. During this
time, the temperature, humidity, and other potential environmental stresses remain
unknown. Upon arrival, the mealworms were observed for signs of mortality and
with the exception of a few dead larvae (less than 0.01%) appeared to be in good
health.

31

Figure 3.1 – Graph showing the temperature (°C, red line) and the relative humidity
(%, green dotted-line) of the lab environment. Temperature and humidity are nearer
the low end of the conditions reported in the literature as acceptable. Note the
missing data on Days 14 and 15 when the data logger was mistakenly unplugged.
Data collected by Vernier LabQuest and processed using Gnumeric 1.10.16.

A total of 5,000 mealworms were used in this study and were acquired from
Rainbow Mealworms of Compton, CA on October 16, 2013. They were marketed as
“medium” larvae. Unfortunately, this supplier was unable to provide an estimate the
32

age of the larvae. The inability of the supplier to confirm an age was unexpected as
the larvae used during the spring study period (same supplier) were reported to be one
week old. Rainbow Mealworms claim that there is a greater degree of variability in
growth as the larvae get older. This, apparently, was due to fluctuations of
temperature and humidity at the rearing facility (personal correspondence). Similarly,
no indication was available as to the number of instars of the larvae, which is
commonly used to identify the stage of larval development, or number of molts. The
larvae were reared by Rainbow Mealworms on a diet of oat and carrot. Upon arrival
to the laboratory their digestive tracks were regarded to be relatively empty, given the
couple days they were in transit without feed. This assumption was supported by the
amount of frass that had accumulated in the packaging along with procedures
reported in other studies. 2.0070 grams of frass was recovered from 555.8043 g of
mealworms, slightly more than the average frass egested by the larvae over the course
of this study.
Cultures were comprised of approximately 55.6 g (± 1.0 g) of larvae, which is
estimated to be 500 mealworms each. At ten larvae per sample per day, this amount
would provide enough mealworms for a study period of 50 days. Based on
observations recorded during the first trial period of spring 2013, and given the older
larvae used for this second trial, it was anticipated that 50 days would be adequate to
collect the necessary data before the larvae began pupation. Rolled oats (~800 mL
per culture) were used as feed and carrots were provided as a source of water.
Each of the ten larvae cultures used in this study was reared in a plastic
storage container measuring of 12 inches by 6 inches (Figure 3.2). The containers

33

were clear with opaque lids. Although no aspect of the lids were measured or
controlled for within the scope of this study it was documented that cultures 1 – 5 had
white lids and cultures 6 – 10 had pink lids. Each lid was drilled multiple times to
allow for air circulation. The containers were stored on the lab counter in a cluster of
five groups stacked two high.

Figure 3.2 – Mealworm cultures on lab counter. A single layer of oats lines the
bottom of the plastic bins. Holes in the lids facilitate air movement.

34

DATA COLLECTION
On a daily basis, ten larvae were selected at random and removed from each
of the cultures. They were passed through a series of four stages over the course of
four days before being discarded. Larvae were selected one each from 10 sectors laid
out over the culture and removed with the use of forceps. The only discretion used in
the selection process was that the larvae showed signs of movement, thus assuring no
possibility of selecting a recently deceased larva. The larvae were collected on a
watch glass prior to all measurements and subsequently weighed using an analytical
balance with a precision of 0.0001 g (0.1 mg) (Figure 3.3). Prior to beginning the
daily collection of data, the analytical balance was adjusted to zero level and
calibrated. The watch glass was then weighed and the mass recorded.

Figure 3.3 – Fresh mealworms on watch glass ready to be weighed. The mealworms
in this photo had been stored in the refrigerator, which explains their curled position.
These mealworms were not sampled as part of the data.

35

The first stage of sampling was designed to provide an opportunity for the
larvae to expel any contents contained in their gut, thus providing for the
establishment of a consistent starting point for mass measurements. During this stage
the larvae were deposited into 7 oz. paper cups (Figure 3.4). The larvae were
restricted from feed but were provided with water crystals so as to maintain
hydration. The continued use of carrots at this point in the study was avoided due to
their relatively high fiber and caloric value. The cups were covered with aluminum
foil over the top so as to prevent possible escape and punctured with a pencil-sized
hole to allow for air circulation. The larvae were kept in these cups for approximately
24 hrs before being removed and weighed.

Figure 3.4 – Example of the sample cups used in this study. The image on the left
shows the cup sealed with foil. This method of securing the sample larvae proved to
be effective as no larvae escaped the cups during the study. The image on the right
shows an aerial view of a cup after being taken out of the drying oven (foil removed).

After being removed from the first set of cups and weighed, the larvae were
moved to a second set of cups which contained approximately 46 to 47 grams of oat
36

feed each. Again, the cups were sealed with foil and the larvae remained there for a
24 hour period before being removed and weighed. The oats were also weighed so as
to determine how much feed was consumed by the larvae. It should be noted
thatfrass accumulation in the oats was present in very small quantities, an observation
that receives additional attention in the Discussion section. The oats were replaced
with fresh oats every couple days. Because the water crystals used to provide
hydration tend to have a sticky consistency they were omitted from these cups so as
not to interfere with the oat feed.
The third stage in the sampling procedure consisted of frass collection (Figure
3.5). For this step, the larvae were moved from the feed cups to a third set of empty
cups. Again, similar to the cups containing feed, there were no water crystals in these
cups due to the likelihood that the frass would adhere to them. The larvae remained
in this cup sealed with a piece of punctured foil overnight and were measured again
the following day. Frass that had been deposited in the cup was dumped out onto the
watch glass and measured on the balance.
The fourth stage of the procedure was designed to facilitate the collection of
dry mass measurements of the larvae (Figure 3.6). Samples were removed from the
drying oven and allowed to reach room temperature before weighing. This assured
that there would be no temperature gradient between the sample and the balance
(Mettler Toledo, 2012). The samples were weighed in the same manner as previous
samples and the mass recorded.

37

Figure 3.5 – A sample of the frass collected during the study. The frass had a sandlike consistency and varied in color from light yellow to dark brown. Under
magnification the frass appeared to display translucent and crystalline properties.
Note forceps for scale.

38

Figure 3.6 – Mealworms after having been removed from the drying oven. The
mealworms were rigid and brittle their color presented as dark brown to black.

ANALYSIS
It was important to establish consistency in regards to the manner in which
measurements were taken with the balance. As an example, observations showed that
the reading of the balance would occasionally “drift” to either higher or lower values.
This means that a reading of 5.1000 g might, over the duration of a minute or so,
slowly drift up to 5.1500 or down to 5.0500. In this study the drift was observed to
be at most 0.0010 g. It was also observed that the drift tended to occur when the
samples supposedly had either relatively high water content or relatively low water
content. This would be the case for samples taken from the first stage cup (with
39

water crystals) or from the fourth stage cup (oven dried). For this reason, the mass
value was immediately recorded upon stabilization and any subsequent drift was
ignored.
Because this study aims to quantify the ECI of dry larvae, it was necessary to
establish a baseline for comparison of the stage 4 (oven-dried) larvae with their initial
weight during stage 1. To achieve this, representative samples were taken during the
onset of the study and prepared as per stage 1. They were then moved directly to the
oven and dried as per stage 4. The difference between wet and dry mass was
determined and a percent water loss value was established. Of seven samples taken
over the course of the study an average of 62.2% water loss was determined. This
value is comparable to wet and dry larvae masses as reported by Martin et al. (1976),
in which the wet and dry masses yielded a water loss of 62.9%. Likewise, Jones et al.
(1972) report a moisture content of 57.8% and Redford and Dorea (1984) report
66.4%. The percent water loss value obtained in this study was applied to the initial
masses of all the larvae samples so as to make meaningful comparisons at the outset
of the study. For example, a sample that is weighed upon being removed from the
first stage of the sampling procedure might have an initial wet mass of 1.2088 g.
Adjusting this wet weight for expected water loss will yield an initial dry mass of
0.4570 g (1.2088 x 0.6220 = 0.4570). Oat feed was also analyzed in a similar
procedure so as to base calculations of ingested feed on dry rather than wet values.

40

CHPATER 4: RESULTS

EFFICIENCY OF CONVERSION OF INGESTED FOOD
The primary analysis of this study aimed to quantify the growth of larvae
relative to the amount of food they were consuming over daily time intervals. ECI is
the standard metric used for such purposes and is calculated by dividing the change in
weight of the larvae (grams) by the amount of food they ingest (grams) (ECI = ∆B/I).
∆B was calculated using the difference in weight between subsequent measurements.
For example, the final dry mass of larvae (stage 4) of Day 5 would be subtracted from
the initial mass of larvae (stage 2) of day 3. Ingested feed (I) values were obtained
from the amount of food consumed over the same periods as ∆B. ECI results are
shown in Table 4.1. ECI of the entire 25-day study period is 0.3357 (see Table 5.1).
The final ECI obtained of 33.6%, can be interpreted as the larvae converting 33.6% of
the feed ingested into biomass between Day 1 and Day 28 of the study.
Excluded from the final ECI measurement are two extreme outlier values
recorded on Days 16 and 21. The sample taken from culture 2 on day 16 was
excluded as was the sample taken from culture 8 on day 21. These two cultures
represent one each of ten samples collected on those days. In other words, of 250
total ECI measurements over the course of the study, 248 measurements were
incorporated into the results and analysis. Figure 4.1 shows how extreme these
values are in relation to the rest of the data. (Refer to Figure 4.4 for a comparison to
the data after being cleaned.) In both Days 16 and 21, the extreme outliers can be
traced back to the mass of feed ingested. The values for I (feed ingested) are

41

Figure 4.1 – Box plots of data prior to being cleaned. Note maximum outlier on day
16 and the minimum outlier on day 21. Sample from culture 2 was omitted from ECI
of day 16, as was sample from culture 8 on day 21. See Figure 4.4 for comparison.

extremely low in comparison to those recorded for the rest of the study period, thus
resulting in a samll denominator and a large quotient (i.e., ECI). It is unclear why the
values are so small but it is suspected that a majority of the larvae may have molted
on these days and thus deposited there exoskeletal remains into the feed. The extra
mass of the molted tissue may have been substantial enough to make up the
difference of the feed that was consumed. Another explanation for the extremes
could be that there was a very small accumulation of frass in the feeding cups. Given
that previous studies report 24 hours as being a sufficient length of time for larvae to
empty their guts of food/waste matter, the following two points are suspected as
contributing to frass accumulation. First, larvae of stage 1 could be consuming the
42

exoskeletal remains as they are molted, leading to the elimination of the ingested
matter during stage 2. Second, mealworms may have a quicker digestion time than
previously anticipated and so are actually eliminating that feed which they are
ingesting during stage 2.
Figure 4.2 depicts the average ECI (as a percentage) of the sample larvae
during the study period. The average mass of the larvae is included for comparison.
Note that there is an upward trend in larvae size (mass) during the first half of
observation. This is followed by a generally slight decrease in size. The ECI of the
larvae increase slightly during the first half of the study and then tend to decrease
considerably. It is believed that the decrease in ECI corresponds to a point in
development where the larvae are approaching the pupation phase (refer to Table 4.1
and Figure 4.3). The average larvae mass supports this due to the fact that there are
no longer signs of mass gain.
Figure 4.4 displays the spread of the corrected ECI data (as a ratio) on each
day of the study. The spread of the data is broken down into quartiles (25%, 50%,
and 75%) with the whisker ends representing minimum and maximum values of each
day. Note that after being cleaning the data, the median (50% mark) on Day 16 is
actually slightly in the negative, with the extreme outlier having previously had a very
strong influence on the ECI. A similar example can be seen on Day 21, although in
this case the outlier and median are both in the negative. Days 22 and 26 should also
be noted as having strongly influential outliers as can be seen in the significance of
the offset between median and mean. Day 27 is unique in that is has a relatively large
spread between the 25th and 75th percentiles, spanning over 8 %. The next largest

43

Figure 4.2 – Graph showing the change in ECI of larvae from day to day (blue bars)
and the average mass of larvae (orange line). ECI is expressed as a percent (e.g.,
ingesting 0.05 g of feed and gaining 0.025 g in mass yields a 50% ECI). Note that the
data begins at day four of the study. This is because day four is the first day that
dried larvae samples were removed from the oven.

spread is only 4% (apx) (Day 17), with most days having a spread of < 1% to 2%. As
a final point, it should be recognized that in most cases the mean daily ECI very
closely falls in line with the corresponding daily median value.

44

Table 4.1 – Daily mean ECI. Data used to generate the graph in Figures 4.2, 4.3, and
4.4. For consistency, “Average Mass” and “Average Food Ingested” were also
cleaned of culture 2 on day 16 and culture 8 on day 21.

45

Figure 4.3 – Graph depicting pupation in comparison to ECI. Note that ECI tends to
decrease during those periods when more larvae are pupating.

46

Figure 4.4 – Cleaned data. Box plots showing spread of ECI values for each of the
ten cultures on each day of the study. Daily mean ECI is included for reference and
demonstrates the overall reliability of the data. The graph represents the data
presented in Table 4.1.

47

CHPATER 5: DISCUSSION

MEALWORMS COMPARED TO CONVENTIONAL LIVESTOCK
Figure 5.1 has been adapted from data presented by Thiessen et al. (1985) on
the efficiency of food conversion of cattle. Their data was presented as grams of
cattle mass gained per kg of food consumed. As the graph demonstrates, the data was
collected once every 12 weeks over a duration of 60 weeks. (No data was reported
for the period 0-12 weeks.) This data represents the live weight of the whole cattle.
A total of 292 female animals representing 25 breeds were used for the study. The
ECI's would be expected to decrease if slaughter weight was to be taken into
consideration (i.e., exclusion of hide, bones, etc.). The combined ECI over the five

Figure 5.1 – Graph of ECI for cattle over a 72-week period. Data adapted from
Thiessen et al. (1985). Average ECI from week 12 to week 72 is 11.7%.

48

data periods recorded equals 11.7%, which is comparable to those ECI values for
cattle presented in Table 5.1. The downward trend of the ECI values is similar to that
presented in Figure 4.2 for the mealworms with the exception that the study period
ends (i.e., cattle are harvested) prior to the occurrence of negative ECI values.

Table 5.1 – “Whole body” has not been processed in any way. “Dressed meat” refers
to animal/insect meat that has been cleaned of inedible tissue (e.g., bone) and
prepared as it would be for market. % dry weight ECI for mealworms was calculated
from the data generated by this study. The daily ECI values (Table 4.1) were
averaged across the length of the study to produce a final ECI. Cricket species is
Acheta domesticus.

INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
A decrease in the ECI of the larvae demonstrates that they are becoming less
efficient at processing their feed into biomass. Although the ECI can be closely
correlated to larvae mass, a change in efficiency can occur under various

49

circumstances. As Figure 4.2 illustrates, as the study period approaches day 28, there
is a small increase in larvae mass (days 24 – 27). However, this increase in mass
corresponds to a drop in ECI, indicating that the larvae are ingesting more food for
smaller gains. From a food production point of view, any indication of an increase in
larvae mass would tend to be favorable so long as the corresponding ECI is constant
or increasing.
Under circumstances favorable to a longer period of observation and data
collection, it would be beneficial for this study to be repeated with very young larvae
so as to create a longer history of their development. The study as presented here is
satisfactory in that there is justification for a shorter rearing/observation period due to
logistical limits and the fact that a developmental history had been, at least in part,
established during the spring 2013 trial. The results successfully accomplished the
purpose of this study which was to identify a trend in the ECI of developing larvae
and to establish a stronger comparison between mealworm production and that of
cattle. As can be seen in the data of Table 5.1, mealworms are approximately 30%
more efficient at turning their feed into biomass than are cattle.
Figure 5.2 is a graph of data collected during the first trial period (spring
2013). It can be directly compared to Figure 4.2. Notable differences include the
relatively lower ECI values and the longer study period. Overall, the trends are for
the most part similar. The larvae used in trial one can be more accurately
approximated to a specific age. They were reported to be approximately one and a
half weeks old at the beginning of the study which makes them at least nine weeks
old at the end of the study on day 55. Note that at day 39 there is less positive growth

50

Figure 5.2 – Graph of daily ECI of larvae from Trial 1 (Spring 2013). The solid bars
represent ECI and the dotted line represents the average mass of larvae on those study
days. During Trial 1, samples were composed of 20 larvae, as opposed to ten larvae
per sample during the Fall 2013 study period.

occurring and the average mass seems to top out for the remainder of the period. A
similar trend occurs at day 20 during the trial 2. With this information, the
approximate age of the larvae at day 20 can be estimated to be 7 weeks old.

ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS AND RECCOMENDATIONS
Although the second trial period in this study resulted in more reliable results
than the first trial period, improvements can still be made. For example, during phase
two of the fall trial, there was a very slight accumulation of frass in the feeding cups.
This was to be anticipated. The accumulation of frass was partially controlled for by
regularly replacing the oat feed with fresh oat. Nonetheless, the frass would have
51

skewed the feed measurements to some degree. Future studies might benefit from a
more sophisticated mechanism to control for frass deposition.
Additionally, the presence of frass did not distort the measurements to the
degree that was observed during the spring study period. Due to the physical
properties of the frass it was not feasible to attempt the separation of frass from oats.
Evans et al. (1939) provides discussion of methods utilized which reportedly
accomplished the task of separating T. molitor frass from oats in which the larvae had
been feeding. Their methods, unfortunately, were unable to be effectively reproduced
for this study. In addition to their methods lacking the precision that the present study
aims to achieve, it was also observed that the frass being produced during this study
had a tendency towards irregular and oblong physical characteristics (see Figure 5.3).
This is in contrast to that which was reported by Evans et al. (1939) in which the frass
was round and spherical and easily rolled away from oat and oat flour particles.
Figure 5.3 shows the variability in size and shape of the frass.
Observations show that the value of the mass of the watch glass fluctuated by
~2.0 mg (0.0020 g) over the duration of the study. It is understood that the analytical
balance used for these mass measurements is sensitive to environmental conditions
and will respond accordingly. Those conditions which are believed to have
potentially had some influence during the sampling procedure are: relative humidity,
temperature, and electrostatics. The fluctuations occurred on a day-to-day basis but
did not appear to present obvious fluctuations during the ~2 hour sampling procedure.
This was confirmed by periodically reassessing the mass value of the empty watch
glass during the procedure. Part of the fluctuation in mass readings of the watch glass

52

Figure 5.3 – Frass collected during the second trial study period. Various sizes and
shapes of frass are visible in the image. The piece of frass indicated in red is 1.4 mm
long by 0.1 mm wide. Scale bar is 2.0 mm. Image captured with an automontage
microscope under 2.5 magnification.

is due to a small chip having occurred during measurements on the 15th day of the
study. The change in mass was taken into account at the time.
It was found in both trials 1 and 2 that screen proved to be an inadequate
material for securing the larvae. Both poly and nylon screens were used
intermittently over the course of both trial periods and it was found that the larvae
effectively chewed through the screen material. Subsequently, it was found that the
foil-enclosed paper cups were effective at securing the larvae. All of the data
presented in this thesis came from samples reared in the foil-cup enclosures.
53

Agar was used early on in this study as a source of feed for the larvae
samples. The purpose of agar as a feed was to (1) maintain greater control over the
dispersal of feed fragments and (2) to provide additional moisture to the larvae during
the sampling procedure. There was no indication that the larvae had suffered in any
way from a lack of moisture during the sampling procedure, as would be evidenced
by dark, rigid dead larva. In fact, the only larvae that were observed to die during the
sampling procedure occurred early in the study before the switch was made from agar
to oats, thus suggesting an adequate amount of water in the larval diet. All of the data
presented here came from larvae samples reared entirely on oats.

54

CHAPTER 6: FINAL THOUGHTS

The food conversion efficiency of the mealworm is just a very small piece of
the larger, more complex global food system. The ECI values presented in this thesis
are a step towards addressing just a specific component of that system. There are, of
course, additional steps being taken, some of which are also aimed at food conversion
efficiency but with different insects. Others focus on nutritional needs of the global
population. And some explore ways of tackling culture biases against insect-eating.
A study by Nakagaki and DeFoliart (1991), for example, quantifies the ECI of
crickets. That study was both a valuable tool for the investigation of this thesis as
well as now being a compliment to it. Other studies also deal with mealworms, but as
opposed to focusing directly on the metabolic processes, they focus on measurable
environmental impacts of production. A recent study from the Netherlands, for
example, quantifies the global warming potential, land use, and energy use resultant
from the production of food-grade mealworms (Oonincx and de Boer, 2012).
The most effective way to approach problems of land, air, and water
degradation, to improve the health and nutrition of people, to more fully understand
and respect the life of other organisms, and to secure a more sustainable future is by
breaking the food system down into its most fundamental component parts. Critically
evaluating those parts and addressing them individually is necessary in order to make
meaningful progress towards food security and environmental sustainability.
Growing and eating mealworms and other insects may be a novel approach, but also
one that is beginning to emerge as a valuable technology for the coming future.

55

REFERENCES

Agricultural Research Council. 1980. The nutrient requirements of ruminant
livestock. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Slough, UK.
Allen, ME, Oftedal, OT. 1994. The nutrition of carnivorous reptiles. Captive
management and conservation amphibians and reptiles. Society for the Study
of Amphibians and Reptiles, Ithaca, NY. Contributions to Herpetology 11:
71-82.
(Banjo, A.D., Lawal, O.A., Songonuga, E.A. 2006. The nutritional value of fourteen
species of edible insects in southwestern Nigeria. African Journal of
Biotechnology, 5: 298-301.
Beets, Willem. 1997. The need for an increased use of small and mini-livestock in
integrated smallholder farming systems. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 36
(Special Issue: Minilivestock): 237-245.
Berg, RT, and Butterfield, RM. 1976. New concepts of cattle growth. Wiley, New
York.
(Bernard, JB, Allen, ME. 1997. Feeding captive insectivorous animals: Nutritional
aspects of insects as food. Nutrition Advisory Group Handbook, Fact Sheet 3:
1-7.
Boongird, S. 2010. Honey and non-honey foods from bees in Thailand. Pages 165172 in PB Durst, DV Johnson, RN Leslie and K Shono, editors. Forest insects
as food: humans bite back. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United
Nations, Regional Office for Asia and Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand.

56

Boulidam, S. 2010. Edible insects in Lao market economy. Pages 131-140 in PB
Durst, DV Johnson, RN Leslie and K Shono, editors. Forest insects as food:
humans bite back. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations,
Regional Office for Asia and Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand.
Bousquet, Y. 1990. Beetles associated with stored products in Canada: An
identification guide. Agriculture Canada Publication 1837, Ottawa, Ontario.
Bukkens, SGF. 1997. The nutritional value of edible insects. Ecology of Food and
Nutrition, 36 (Special Issue: Minilivestock): 287-319.
Connat, JL, DelBecque, JP, Glitho, I, DeLaChambre, J. 1991. Journal of Insect
Physiology, 37: 653-662.
Cotton, RT. 1927. Notes on the biology of the meal worms, Tenebrio molitor Linne
and T. obscurus Fab. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 20:
81-86.
Daily, G, Dasgupta, P, Bolin, B, Crosson, P, du Guerny, J, Ehrlich, P, … and Walker,
B. 1998. Food production, population growth, and environmental security.
Fondazione Eni Enrico Mattei Working Paper No. 21.98. Available at SSRN:
http://ssrn.com/abstract=128269 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.128269.
Davis, GRF and Sosulski, FW. 1972. Use of larvae of Tenebrio molitor L. to
determine nutritional value of proteins in six defatted oilseed meals. Archives
Of Physiology And Biochemistry, 805: 01-509.
Davis, GRF and Sosulski, FW. 1974. Nutritional quality of oilseed protein isolates
as determined with larvae of the yellow mealworm, Tenebrio molitor L. The
Journal of Nutrition, 104: 1172-1177.
DeFoliart, GR. 1995. Edible insects as minilivestock. Biodiversity and
Conservation, 4: 306-321.

57

Defoliart, GR, Finke, MD, Sunde, ML. 1982. Potential value of the mormon cricket
(Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae) harvested as a high-protein feed for poultry.
Journal of Economic Enomology, 75: 848-852.
Department of Agriculture of Northern Ireland. 1987. Supplementary report of lean
meat advice group. Department of Agriculture, Belfast.
Durst, PD, Shono, K. 2010. Edible forest insects: exploring new horizons and
traditional practices. Pages 1-4 in PB Durst, DV Johnson, RN Leslie and K
Shono, editors. Forest insects as food: humans bite back. Food and
Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Regional Office for Asia and
Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand.
Durst, PB, Johnson, DV, Leslie, RN, and Shono, K, editors. 2010. Forest insects as
food: humans bite back. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United
Nations, Regional Office for Asia and Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand.
Ensminger, ME. 1980. Poultry science, 2nd ed. Interstate, Danville, IL.
Evans, AC and Goodliffe, ER. 1939. The utilization of food by the larva of the
mealworm Tenebrio molitor L. Proceedings of the Royal Entomological
Society of London, 14: 57-62.
Farrar, RR, Barbour, JD, Kennedy, GG. 1989. Quantifyin food consumption and
growth in insects. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 82: 593598.
Fast, PG. 1966. A comparative study of the phospholipids and fatty acids of some
insects. Lipids, 1: 209-215.
Finke, MD. 2012. Complete nutrient content of four species of feeder insects. Zoo
Biology, 00: 1-15.

58

Finke, MD. 2007. Estimate of chitin in whole raw insects. Zoo Biology, 26: 105115.
Finke, MD. 2002. Complete nutrient composition of commercially raised
inverterates used as food for insectivores. Zoo Biology, 21: 269-285.
Fraenkel, G. 1950. The nutrition of the mealworm, Tenebrio molitor L.
(Tenebrionidae, Coleoptera). Physiological Zoology, 23: 92-108.
France, J, Gill, M, Thomley, JHM. 1987. A model of nutrient utilization and body
composition in beef cattle. Animal Production, 44: 371-385.
Gahukar, RT. 2011. Entomophagy and human food security. International Journal
of Tropical Insect Science, 31: 129-144.
Gordon, HT. 1968. Quantitative aspects of insect nutrition. American Zoologist, 8:
131-138.
Gracer, D. 2010. Filling the plates: serving insects to the public in the United States.
Pages 217-220 in PB Durst, DV Johnson, RN Leslie and K Shono, editors.
Forest insects as food: humans bite back. Food and Agricultural Organization
of the United Nations, Regional Office for Asia and Pacific, Bangkok,
Thailand.
Greenberg, S, and Ar, A. 1996. Effects of chronic hypoxia, normoxia, and hyperoxia
on larval development in the beetle Tenebrio molitor. Journal of Insect
Physiology, 42: 991-996.
Grisdale, D. 1973. Large volume preparation and processing of a synthetic diet for
insect rearing. The Canadian Entomologist, 105: 1553-1557.
Hardouin, J. 1997. Developing minilivestock as source of human food, animal feed
or revenue: A brief overview. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 36 (Special
Issue: Minilivestock): 95-107.
59

Hill, Dennis S. 2003. Pests: Class Insecta. Pests of stored foodstuffs and their
control, 135-315.
Johnson, DV. 2010. The contribution of edible forest insects to human nutrition and
to forest management. Pages 5-22 in PB Durst, DV Johnson, RN Leslie and
K Shono, editors. Forest insects as food: humans bite back. Food and
Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Regional Office for Asia and
Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand.
Jones, DB. 1931. Factors for converting percentages of nitrogen in foods and feeds
into percentages of proteins. United States Dept. of Agriculture, Washington,
D.C.
Jones, LD, Cooper, RW, and Harding, RS. 1972. Composition of mealworm
Tenebrio molitor larvae. Journal of Zoo Animal Medicine, 3: 34-41.
Katayama, N., Y. Ishikawa, M. Takaoki, M. Yamashita, S. Nakayama, K. Kiguchi, R.
Kok, H. Wada, and J. Mitsuhashi. 2008. Entomophagy: a key to space
agriculture. Advances in Space Research, 41: 701-705.
Katayama, N., Y. Ishikawa, M. Takaoki, M. Yamashita, S. Nakayama, K. Kiguchi, R.
Kok, H. Wada, and J. Mitsuhashi. 2006. Entomophagy and space agriculture.
In 36th COSPAR Scientific Assembly, 36: 134.
Katayama, Naomi, Masamichi Yamashita, Hidenori Wada, and Jun Mitsuhashi.
2005. Entomophagy as part of a space diet for habitation on Mars. Journal of
Space Technology and Science, 21: 27-38.
Kilpatrick, DJ, Steen, RWJ. 1999. A predictive model for beef cattle growth and
carcass composition. Agricultural Systems, 61: 95-107.
Klein, I and Kogan, M. 1974. Analysis of food intake, utilization and growth in
phytophagous insects – A computer program. Annals of the Entomological
Society of America, 67:295-297.
60

Kogan, M. 1986. Bioassays to measure quality of insect food. Pages 155-189 in JR
Miller and TA Miller, editors. Insect Plant Interactions. Springer-Verlag,
New York.
Kok, R, Lomaliza, K, Shavhare, US. 1988. The design and performance of an insect
farm/chemical reactor for human food production. Canadian Agricultural
Engineering, 30: 307-317.
Lovell, RT. 1979. Fish culture in the United States. Science, 206: 1368-1372.
Ludwig, D. 1956. Effects of temperature and parental age on the life cycle of the
mealworm, Tenebrio molitor Linnaeus (Coleoptera, Tenebrionidae). Annals
of the Entomological Society of America, 49: 12-14.
Ludwig, D, and Fiore, C. 1960. Further studies on the relationship between parental
age and the life cycle of the mealworm, Tenebrio molitor. Annals of the
Entomological Society of America, 53: 595-600.
Machin, JOHN. 1976. Passive exchanges during water absorption in mealworms
(Tenebrio molitor): A new approach to studying the phenomenon. Journal of
Experimental Biology, 65: 603-615.
Malaisse, F and Parent, G. 1980. Les chenilles comestibles du Shaba meridional
(Zaire). Les Naturalistes Belges, 61: 2-24.
Martin, RD, Rivers, JPW, Cowgill, UM. 1976. Culturing mealworms as food for
animals in captivity. International Zoo Yearbook, 16:63-70.
Mellanby, K. 1932. The effect of atmospheric humidity on the metabolism of the
fasting mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L., Coleoptera). Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, 111: 376-390.

61

Mercer, CWL. 1997. Sustainable production of insects for food and income by New
Guinea villagers. 1999. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 36 (Special Issue:
Minilivestock): 151-157.
Mettler Toledo. 2012. Weighing the right way: Guide book. Mettler-Toledo AG,
Laboratory and Weighing Technologies, Greifensee, Switzerland.
Meyer, JH and Nelson, AO. 1963. Efficiency of feed utilized by various animal
species fed similar rations. Journal of Nutrition, 80: 343-349.
Meyer-Rochow, VB. 2010. Entomophagy and its impact on world cultures: the need
for a multidisciplinary approach. Pages 23-36 in PB Durst, DV Johnson, RN
Leslie and K Shono, editors. Forest insects as food: humans bite back. Food
and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Regional Office for Asia
and Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand.
Mitsuhashi, J. 2010. The future use of insects as human food. Pages 115-122 in PB
Durst, DV Johnson, RN Leslie and K Shono, editors. Forest insects as food:
humans bite back. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations,
Regional Office for Asia and Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand.
Nakagaki, BJ, DeFoliart, GR. 1991. Comparison of diets for mass-rearing Acheta
domesticus (Orthoptera: Gryllidae) as a novelty food, and comparison of food
conversion efficiency with values reported for livestock. Journal of Economic
Entomology, 84: 891-896.
Onore, G. 1997. A brief note on edible insects in Ecuador. Ecology of Food and
Nutrition, 36 (Special Issue: Minilivestock): 277-285.
Oonincx, Dennis and de Boer, Imke. 2012. Environmental impact of the production
of mealworms as a protein source for humans: A life cycle assessment. PloS
one, 7:e51145.

62

Paoletti, MG, Norberto, L, Damini, R, Musumeci, S. 2007. Human gastric juice
contain chitinase that can degrade chitin. Annals of Nutrition and
Metabolism, 51: 244-251.
Pielou, DP. 1940. The humidity behaviour of the mealworm beetle, Tenebrio
molitor L. II. The humidity receptors. Journal of Experimental Biology, 17:
295-306.
Ramandey, E, van Mastrigt, H. 2010. Edible insects in Papua, Indonesia: From
delicious snack to basic need. Pages 105-114 in PB Durst, DV Johnson, RN
Leslie and K Shono, editors. Forest insects as food: humans bite back. Food
and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Regional Office for Asia
and Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand.
Ramos-Elorduya, J. 1997. The importance of edible insects in the nutrition and
economy of people of the rural areas of Mexico. Ecology of Food and
Nutrition, 36: 347-366.
Redford, KH, and Dorea, JG. 1984. The nutritional value of invertebrates with
emphasis on ants and termites as food for mammals. Journal of Zoology, 203:
385-395.
Schonwald, J. 2012. Overcoming the yuckiness of eating bugs and seaweed can help
save the world. Slate.com, June 25.
Schroeckenstein, DC, Meier-Davis, S, and Bush, RK. 1990. Occupational sensitivity
to Tenebrio molitor Linnaeus (yellow mealworm). Journal of Allergy and
Clinical Immunology, 86: 182-188.
Shea, JF. 2005(a). Hymenolepis diminuta (Cestoda) cysticercoids on the weight
change, frass production, and food intake of the intermediate host, Tenebrio
molitor (Coleoptera). Parasitol Research, 98: 1-4.

63

Shea, JF. 2005(b). Sex differences in frass production and weight change in
Tenebrio molitor (Coleoptera) infected with cysticercoids of the tapeworm
Hymenolepis diminuta (Cestoda). Journal of Insect Science, 5: 1536-2442.
Shinn, DA. 1980. Historical perspectives on range burning in the inland pacific
northwest. Journal of Range Management, 33: 415-423.
Singh, P, Moore, RF. 1985. Handbook of insect rearing. Vols I and II. Elsevier
Science Publishers BV.
Slansky, F. 1985. Food utilization by insects: Interpretation of observed differences
between dry weight and energy efficiencies. Entomologia Experimentalis et
Applicata, 39: 47-60.
Steinfeld, H, Gerber, P, Wassenaar, T, Castel, V, Rosales, M, de Haan, C. 2006.
Livestock's long shadow. Environmental Issues and Options. Rome, Food
and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations.
Stewart, KK. 1997. Editorial: what are the variances of food compositions data?
Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 10: 89.
Sutton, MQ. 1988. Insects as food: aboriginal entomophagy in the Great Basin.
Menlo Park, CA: Ballena Press.
Thiessen, RB, Taylor, CS, and Murray, J. 1985. Multibreed comparisons of British
cattle: Variation in relative growth rate, relative food intake, and food
conversion efficiency. Animal Production, 41: 193-199.
Thrupp, LA. 2000. Linking agricultural biodiversity and food security: the valuable
role of agrobiodiversity for sustainable agriculture. International Affairs, 76:
283-297.

64

Tijhuis, MJ, Ezendam, J, Westenbrink, S, van Rossum, C, Temme, L. 2011.
Replacement of meat and dairy by more sustainable protein sources in the
Netherlands: Quality of the diet. Rijksinstituut voor Volksgezondheid en
Milieu (RIVM).
Tyschchenko, VP, and Sheyk, BA. 1986. Photoperiodic regulation of larval growth
and pupation of Tenebrio molitor L. (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae).
Entomological Review, 65: 35-46.
Urs, KCD, and Hopkins, TL. 1973. Effect of moisture on growth rate and
development of two strains of Tenebrio molitor L. (Coleoptera,
Tenebrionidae). Journal of Stored Products Research, 8: 291-297.
(USDA) United States Department of Agriculture. 2013(a). Visual reference library
- Insects. Grain Inspection, Packers and Stockyard Administration. Accessed
online, November 28, 2013.
(USDA) United States Department of Agriculture. 2013(b). National nutrient
database for standard reference, release 26. Accessed online, November 28,
2013.
Vantomme, P, Mertens, E, van Huis, A, Klunder, H. 2012. Assessing the potential of
insects as food and feed in assuring food security: summary report. Food and
Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Forestry Department, Rome,
Italy.
Verkerk, MC, Tramper, J, Van Trijp, JC, Martens, DE. 2007. Insect cells for human
food. Biotechnology Advances, 25: 198-202.
Waldbauer, GP. 1968. The consumption and utilization of food by insects.
Advances in Insect Physiology, 5: 229-288.
Wallach, JD. 1972. The management and medical care of mealworms. Journal of
Zoo Animal Medicine, 3: 29-33.
65

Watanabe, H and Satrawaha, R. 1984. A list of edible insects sold at the public
market in Khon Kaen, Northeast Thailand. Southeast Asian Studies, 22.
Watson, RT, Noble, IR, Boliln, B, Ravindranath, NH, Verardo, DJ, Dokken, DJ.
2000. Land use, land-use change, and forestry. Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, UK.
Watson, RT, Zinyowera, MC, Moss, RH. 1997. The regional impacts of climate
change: an assessment of vulnerability. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change, Cambridge University Press, UK.
Weaver, DK, and McFarlane, JE. 1990. The effect of larval density on growth and
development of Tenebrio molitor. Journal of Insect Physiology, 36: 531-536.
Whittenmore, CT and Elsley, FW. 1976. Practical pig nutrition. Farming, Ipswitch,
Suffolk.
Woodring, JP, Roe, RM, and Clifford, CF. 1977. Relation of feeding, growth, and
metabolism to age in the larval, female house cricket. Journal of Insect
Physiology, 23: 207-212.
Wu Leung, WT, Busson, F, Jardin, C. 1968. Food Composition Table for use in
Africa. FAO, Rome/U.S. Dept of Health, Education, and Welfare, Bethesda,
MA.
Xiaoming, C, Ying, F, Hong, Z, Zhiyong, C. 2010. Review of the nutritive value of
edible insects. Pages 85-92 in PB Durst, DV Johnson, RN Leslie and K
Shono, editors. Forest insects as food: humans bite back. Food and
Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Regional Office for Asia and
Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand.

66

Yen, AL. 2010. Edible insects and other invertebrates in Australia: Future prospects.
Pages 65-84 in PB Durst, DV Johnson, RN Leslie and K Shono, editors.
Forest insects as food: humans bite back. Food and Agricultural Organization
of the United Nations, Regional Office for Asia and Pacific, Bangkok,
Thailand.
Yhoung-aree, J, Puwastien, P, Attig, GA. 1997. Edible insets in Thailand: An
unconventional protein source? Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 36 (Special
Issue: Minilivestock): 133-149.
Zhi-Yi, L. 1997. Insects as food in China. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 36
(Special Issue: Minilivestock): 201-207.

67

Media

Spang_B-MES2013.pdf