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Title
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Eng
Museum exhibits as informal venues for environmental learning
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Date
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2005
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Creator
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Eng
Kitabayashi, Maki
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Subject
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Environmental Studies
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extracted text
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Museum Exhibits as Informal Venues for Environmental Learning:
Application of Models from American Museums to the Design of Exhibits
at the Museum of Nature and Human Activities in Hyogo, Japan
by
Maki Kitabayashi
A Thesis
Submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree
Master of Environmental Studies
The Evergreen State College
June 2005
This Thesis for the Master of Environmental Studies Degree
by
Maki Kitabayashi
has been approved for
The Evergreen State College
by
bu- tiac-~~DV
Adjunct Membe
fthe acuity
Member of the Faculty
2~SlA-e 7C0~Date
11
Abstract
Museum Exhibits as Informal Venues for Environmental Learning:
Application of Models from American Museums to the Design of Exhibits
at the Museum of Nature and Human Activities in Hyogo, Japan
Maki Kitabayashi
Exhibits and educational programs in museums have possibilities for effective
environmental education for visitors. Environmental education programs or exhibits that
occur in museums are by nature informal, and the visitors' expectations are usually not
"learning," but having fun. However, because of the way people experience museums,
some learning is always taking place. In learning about environmental education in
museums, aquariums, and nature centers in the United States, I have been observing the
ways museums provide enjoyable and effective learning experiences for visitors.
Through the literature reviews of environmental education, informal learning,
pedagogy, museum study, and exhibit design, I have summarized the factors that make
learning lasting and effective. With this summary of effective learning, I have discussed
the ways that museum exhibits can stimulate visitors' learning. I also conducted case
studies based on visits to various museum exhibits and interviews of museum staff in the
u.S .-University of Alaska Museum of the North, Monterey Bay Aquarium, and
California Academy of Science. In this process, I focused on the exhibits that I thought
were especially good examples of effective environmental exhibitions: their conceptual
design process, their visual attractiveness, and their interactive labels and messages.
Through interviews with museum staff, I also attempted to learn how these exhibitions
were designed.
In the past, Japanese natural history museums have been designed as serious and
formal places of observation. It has been my observation (in multiple museums) that
visitors often do not expect active learning or engagement. However, Japanese natural
history museums have the potential for effective informal environmental education not
only through the content of their exhibits, but with the kind of engagement the exhibits
could foster. As informal education settings, museums have huge potential for visitor
participation, but it is necessary for museum exhibits to stimulate visitors to have fun and
to learn at same time. I would like to suggest to Japanese museum designers and
educators ways to make their environmental exhibits more engaging and effective.
I have been communicating with the Museum of Nature and Human Activities,
Hyogo. Staff at this museum have expressed interest in my plans to make suggestions
about more effective environmental exhibits. My thesis project explored "the topic of the
styles of American museum exhibits (regarding environmental themes) and how they can
be applied to the Museum of Nature and Human Activities, Hyogo, specifically in terms
of effective strategies for engagement and learning in informal settings."
Key Words: Environmental Education, Museum Study, Informal Learning.
©.Copyright 2005
Maki Kitabayashi
111
Table of Contents
Introduction
1
Chapter 1: Environmental Education and its Relationship to Museum Learning••••• 5
Chapter 2: The Museum as a Center of Informal Learning
I. The Museum as an Evolving Institution
II.
Effective Environments for Learning in Museums
III.
Exhibit Design
IV.
Evaluation
V. A Discussion about Educational Role of Museum
11
11
16
20
24
26
Chapter 3: History and Current Situation in Japanese Museums and in the Museum
of Nature and Human Activities, Hyogo
29
I.
Brief History of Japanese Museum Focus
29
II.
The Museum of Nature and Human Activities, Hyogo
32
III.
The Emergence of Leading Edge Museums in Japan
37
IV.
Difficulties of Interpretation in Japanese Museums and Possible Alternatives 40
Chapter 4: Case Studies
42
I.
University of Alaska's Museum of the North
44
1. Overview of the University of Alaska's Museum of the North
44
2. The Roles of the Education Department..
45
3. Exhibit and Design
48
4. Bison exhibit (Blue Babe-A Case Study) as an Example for Designing Scientific
Findings into an Exhibit
54
5. Discussion of Application to the Hyogo Museum
55
II. Monterey Bay Aquarium
1. Process of Developing Exhibitions with its Evolving Philosophy
2. Different Ways of Communication of Mission and Messages in Exhibitions
3. Application for Hyogo Museum
58
59
63
67
III. California Academy of Science
1. Overview of The California Academy of Science
2. Exhibit Design
3. "Ants: Hidden World Revealed" Exhibition
4. Discussion of Application to the Hyogo Museum
70
70
71
74
78
IV. Model Exhibitions at the Field Museum and the Museum of Science, Boston ...... 81
Conclusion: Recommendation
85
Reference
88
IV
Lists of Figures and Tables
Figure
Number
Page
1
Ascending Staircase of Environmental Education Outcomes
8
2
Model for Leaching and Learning in Environmental Education
9
3
Roles of Each Staff Members for Exhibit Design Process
62
Table
Number
Page
Aspects of Museums Learning that has the Potential to Create Effective
Learning environments
28
v
Ackno wledgements
There are so many people I would like to thank. In an effort to be brief, I will simply say
that all of my family and friends have played a role. However, there are some individuals
in particular who deserve special credits.
I would like to thank my facility reader, John Perkins.
Jean MacGregor, who always supported me for three years, giving me feedback and
encouraging all of my studying, as well as thesis writing.
Ginn Kitaoka, who introduced me to the Museum of Nature and Human Activities,
Hyogo.
The staff ofthe Museum of Nature and Human Activities, Hyogo, who asked me to do
this research and provided the resources.
I would like to thank those who offered their time for my interviews and gave me
important insights about museum work in the U.S.:
Wanda W. Chin, Coordinator of Exhibition and Design;
Terry P. Dickey, Coordinator of Education;
Amy Reed Geiger, Manager of Visitor Service; and
Sophie Tan Osborn, Assistant Manager of Visitor Service
at the University of Alaska Museum ofthe North.
Jenny Ramberg, Exhibit Developer and Writer
Jaci Tomulonis, Exhibit Developer and Writer
at the Monterey Bay Aquarium.
Lisa Hubbell, Program Evaluator of Public Programs
Marco Centin, Exhibit Designer
at the California Academy of Science.
Akemi Chayama, Japan Program Educator
at the Boston Children's Museum
Thank you to Anna Kim and Michael Radelich, who helped my English to make sense.
Thank you to my mother Tamiko, and my father Toshinobu for the constant support and
experiences you have provided me over the years.
Vi
Introduction
Along with science, technology and public policy, environmental education for
the public is an important strategy for preventing and solving environmental problems.
One major goal of environmental education is that of fostering individuals' responsible
environmental behavior (REB), which includes active engagement and participation.
Individuals go through the following necessary processes to reach REB: awareness,
knowledge, skills, attitudes, and understandings of both the biophysical environment and
related issues . Individuals learn and reach REB through a process of integrating some or
all of these elements through both formal learning and their life-long experiences.
Although the aims of environmental education are straightforward, environmental
education occurs over time in many different places, such as at home, in schools, in the
natural environment, and in museums and other informal learning settings where people
encounter environmental experiences and ideas.
As professionals of psychology and pedagogy who understand how people learn,
we are now beginning to understand the factors that make for effective learning
processes. Human learning grows out of people's previous experiences. As people have
different experiences in their lives, and because they build on their experiences and prior
knowledge in different ways, these factors are complex. However, motivation, social
conununication, personal connection, and the physical environments of learning need to
be considered. As people become independent, life-long learners, much of their learning
occurs in informal learning settings, known as "free-choice learning." Independent
learners control how, what, when, and where they learn, and with whom. This learner
centered learning is actually very effective and it plays an important, and often
unrecognized, role in society.
Museums are one important venue for free-choice learning. Museums are multi
faceted institutions that serve the larger society with many functions, such as research,
the maintenance of special collections, and education. While each individual museum
emphasizes unique functions within a conununity, any museum can provide an effective
I
learning environment for people as an informal learning center, or a place for "free
choice learning."
Museums have the potential for offering effective environmental education for
visitors through exhibits and educational programs. The visitors' expectations are usually
not "learning," but having fun. However, of course, some learning always is taking place
as people experience musewns. In order to ascertain the effectiveness of exhibits and
educational programs in meeting their stated educational goals, an evaluation of museum
exhibits is necessary.
In the past, Japanese natural history museums have been designed as serious,
rather formal places of observation. It has been my observation (in multiple museums)
that visitors often do not expect to be engaged in active learning or interaction with
museums or interpreters in museums. However, Japanese natural history museums have
the potential for effective informal environmental education, not only because of the
content of their exhibits, but also because of the kind of engagement that the exhibits
could foster. As informal education settings, museums have huge potential for visitor
participation, but it is necessary for museum exhibits to stimulate visitors to have fun and
to learn at the same time. Some Japanese museums try to provide enjoyable moments and
an engaging learning atmosphere through interaction among scientists, interpreters, and
visitors. However, these efforts are mostly occurring as experiments in a very small
number of museurns. Yet, at the same time, there is also an emerging realization about
the potential and effectiveness of museum education by Japanese professionals.
In learning about environmental education in museums, aquariums, and nature
centers in the US , I have been impressed by the ways they provide enjoyable learning
experiences for visitors. I would like to suggest to Japanese museum designers and
educators some ways to make their environmental exhibits more engaging and effective
in reaching different communities of visitors. I also realize that Japanese museum
professionals cannot simply import the American style of the exhibits and educational
programs because of different cultural expectations and different participation styles of
visitors.
2
I have been communicating with the Museum of Nature and Human Activities.
Hyogo; this museum has been planning a new exhibit wing to expand its current area.
Staff at this museum have expressed interest in my plans to make suggestions about more
effective environmental exhibits. Therefore. my thesis project will explore how styles of
American museum exhibits (regarding environmental themes) can be applied to the
Museum of Nature and Human Activities. Hyogo, specifically in terms of effecti ve
strategies for engagement and learning in informal settings. In the 2004-05 academic
year, I visited several museums in the U.S and had opportunities to interview museum
staff members involved in exhibit design, interpretation, and evaluation. I examined what
part of their successes can be applied in the process of developing exhibits in the
Museum of Nature and Human Activities, Hyogo.
The Museum of Nature and Human Activities, Hyogo has a major opportunity to
develop new exhibits to provide effective learning experiences for visitors. A successful.
engaging new exhibit wing could help increase the visitor numbers and participation of
the people in the community, and also increase people's environmental consciousness.
The success of the exhibits in this museum could also help influence museum practice all
across Japan. As people discover enjoyable experiences in this museum, the style of
Japanese museum exhibits and people's attitudes toward museums could change over
time, and more interactive exhibits could spread a promising approach in Japanese
museums.
To explore this topic, I will begin by discussing environmental education and its
relationship to museum learning in Chapter 1. In Chapter 2, I will discuss museums as
centers of informal learning from different perspectives: museums as evolving
institutions, effective environments for learning, exhibit design, evaluation, and the
educational role of museums. In Chapter 3, I will explain the history and the current
situation in Japanese museums and in the Museum ofNature and Human Activities,
Hyogo in Japan (Hyogo Museum), as well as discussing the difficulties of applying the
American style of museum to Japan. and other alternatives.
In Chapter 4, based on the discussion in Chapters 1 through 3, I will look at
museums in the U.S as case studies. I will discuss how these museums provide effective
3
learning centers for the goal of environmental education through the observation of
museum exhibits and interviews of the museum staff. Through describing the case study
exhibit as a model, I will also discuss the possibilities that the Hyogo Museum can adapt
the models of museum exhibits for their own exhibits. In my conclusion, I will
summarize the necessary changes that would improve the exhibits in Hyogo Museum so
it could be a more effective learning center for the goal of environmental education.
4
Chapter 1: Environmental Education and its Relationship to Museum
Learning
The field of environmental education (EE) emerged in North America in the
1960s as a result of Rachel Carson's Silent Spring (1962), which gave enormous
prominence to the threats of pesticides. This movement began in response to other media
attention to increasing environmental problems, such as pollution and urban sprawl. The
fundamentals of the environmental education movement grew out of the realization that
human behaviors were the root cause of most environmental problems and that education
could be one strategy for preventing them.
In 1969, William B. Stapp et al. first attempted to define and conceptualize EE in
a paper The Concept ofEnvironmental Education. This paper offered the first definition
of the field: "[E]nvironmental education is aimed at producing a citizenry that is
knowledgeable concerning the biophysical environment and its associated problems,
aware of how to help solve these problems, and motivated to work toward their solution."
This statement put forth the claim that EE through individuals of all ages working
together could be the solution for environmental problems.
This definition was further defined and elaborated upon in the 1970s by two
subsequent international, intergovernmental conferences convened by the United Nations
Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization (UNESCO). The meetings were held in
Belgrade, Yugoslavia in 1976 and Tblisi, Georgia in 1978. The Belgrade gathering
adopted The Belgrade Charter; A Global Frameworkfor Environmental Education
(United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization-United Nations
Environment Programme [UNESCO-UNEP], 1976), and the Tbilisi conference adopted
the Tbilisi Declaration in 1978; both documents laid out the goals and key tenets of EE.
The Tblisi Declaration stated that the goals of EE were to " foster clear awareness of, and
concern about, economic, social, political and ecological interdependence in urban and
rural areas; to provide every person with opportunities to acquire the knowledge, values,
attitudes, commitment, and skills needed to protect and improve the environment; to
5
create new patterns of behavior of individuals, groups and society as a whole towards the
environment (UNESCO- UNEP).
The goals of EE are now widely accepted in the field: awareness, knowled ge,
attitudes, skills, and participation. However, while these overall environmental education
definitions put forward very idealistic outcomes, not much was defined in terms of an
environmental curriculum or recommended practices. Therefore, Hungerford, Peyton,
and Wilke (1980) proposed the superordinate goal of environmental education as "to aid
citizens in becoming environmentally knowledgeable and, above all, skilled and
dedicated citizens who are willing to work, individually and collectively, toward
achieving and/or maintaining a dynamic equilibrium between quality of life and quality
of the environment." They also made a new contribution to the theory of the field by
setting out four different levels of environmental learning; ecological foundation level,
conceptual awareness level about issues and values, investigation and evaluation level,
and environmental action skill level-training and application. Although their discussion
of the levels was for the development of curriculum for schools and universities, this
discussion also helps to illuminate people's learning processes, which I will discuss as
pedagogy later in this paper.
The process of forming Responsible Environmental Behavior (REB) as a result of
environmental education has been discussed by professionals in the field for many years.
Hines, Hungerford, and Tomera proposed the model of REB in 1986. They argued that
personal factors would make the difference in whether individuals would actually adopt
REBs and they strongly recommended that the field pay attention to such personal factors
as attitudes, locus of control, and personal responsibility related to the desire for taking
action. However, they argued that cognitive factors, action skills, knowledge of action
strategies, and knowledge of issues were also necessary. These factors develop the
intention to act, and the intention to act with situational factors form the foundation of
REB. The model was tested by Hwang, Kim, and Jeng in 2000. They concluded that
"[A]n individual's intentional locus of control level can bring about the positive attitude
level that one has, and that the attitude level does change the intention to act." However,
as Hines, Hungerford, and Tomera admitted, "[T[he prediction of responsible
6
environmental behavior is not a simple process. It appears to involve a number of
variables, none of which are likely to operate without interacting with others ." Although
these detailed studies are not the focus of this paper, it is necessary to keep these factors
in mind when an environmental education program is developed. Acting responsibly is
not just a matter of cognitive knowledge, or certain skills, or attitudes and personal
inclinations: rather, it is a complex mix of these factors.
In her environmental education class at The Evergreen State College, Jean
MacGregor showed the "Ascending Staircase ofEE outcomes" in Figure I below. This
model helps to illuminate what kind of awareness, knowledge, skills, attitudes, and so on
that environmental education programs might aspire to, and then what speci fic strategies
may be developed to realize these outcomes. MacGregor points out that one stair on the
staircase does not necessarily lead to the next higher one: different EE programs bring
learners in at different levels.
, --
- '
--- -_ ._ -
----
Responsible environmental behavior (UREB")
Active engagement. and participation
Understanding: bringing knowledge and skills to new situations
Attitudes: appreciation, values. empathy. motivation to act
Skills: critical or creative thinking, communications, problem-solving
Knowledge: facts, concepts
Awareness: of the natural and "built" environment
Figure 1. Ascending Staircase of Environmental Education Outcomes
(Jean MacGregor)
J
For example, students can learn knowledge (facts and concepts) in school
classrooms. However, if students are not aware of the natural and "built" environment, it
is difficult for them to apply the knowledge to solve the problems. Similarly, even if
people appreciate natural environment and have motivation to act, without knowledge
they would not know how to act. However, it is also difficult to understand what REB is.
For example, although recycling materials such as newspaper or glass can be seen as
REB, some of these processes use harmful chemicals. Does this fact suggest that landfill
7
is better than recycling? Can we know which is better? Maybe the best thing we can do is
less consuming. As people move up the staircase, they can make decisions by themselves
about what is responsible. Societies, individuals, natural environment, and "built"
environment are all integrating. In this complex system, there is no specific REB to solve
the big problems.
Joy Palmer and Philip Neal (1994) explain the interrelated components of
environmental education as a model in Figure 2. They set out various components of
environmental education; educatingfor, educating in or through, and educating about the
environment. These Canadian environmental educators argue that all these overlapping
dimensions improve individual holistic development. In the process of developing EE
programs, these considerations are necessary to make them effective.
<,
Concern
-,
\
\
\
\
-,
\
\
\
\
\
Figure 2. Model for Leaching and Learning in Environmental Education
Joy Palmer and Philip Neal (1994, p. 39)
The concept of environmental education is fairly straightforward, but the practice
of environmental education can take many forms. For example, environmental education
8
can be seen as teaching specific strategies for the prevention or solution of environmental
problems, but it can also be seen more broadly as the subj ect of a course about the natural
world and its interrelationships. Sometimes personal experience in the natural
environment might begin to accomplish the goal of environmental education.
Environmental education is offered in many kinds of educational venues, such as at home
within the family, within formal educational settings such as schools and college s, in the
print or broadcast media, in social groups for both youth and adults, and in institutions for
cultural enrichment. Each venue contributes a different piece, and sometimes the pieces
add up to contradictory messages, but sometimes they add up to a very coherent message.
(MacGregor, Personal communication).
The focus of this paper is on how museums attempt to educate the public about
the environment, and how they attempt to move learners the ascending staircase toward
environmentally responsible behavior. Are museums suitable venues for environmental
education? The Tbilisi Declaration, which resulted from one of the major UNESCO
conferences held in the 1970s, presents the following tenets of environmental education
that are suitable to the educational styles of museums:
(l) Museums are informal learning settings that can provide life-long learning for
citizens. The Tbilisi Declaration states: "environmental education should be
provided for all ages, at all levels and in both formal and nonformal education"
and "environmental education, properly understood, should constitute a
comprehensive lifelong education, one responsive to changes in a rapidly
changing world."
(2) Museums evolve with their audiences (people in communities) as well as through
their changing museum staff. The Tbilisi Declaration states, "Environmental
education must look outward to the community. It should involve the individual
in an active problem-solving process within the context of specific realities, and it
should encourage initiative, a sense of responsibility and commitment to build a
better tomorrow." The museum can also provide flexible educational programs
with EE components that introduce responsible environmental behaviors.
9
Musewns have the potential to become places to achieve the goal of
environmental education.
In the past two decades, across North America, musewns, zoos and aquaria have
started realizing that their exhibits and interpretive programs could playa more active
and positive role in environmental education. To that end, the missions of many musewns
are increasingly moving toward the goal of environmental education. For examp le, the
mission of the Monterey Bay Aquariwn is to inspire conservation of the ocean. The
mission of the California Academy of Science is to explore, explain, and protect the
natural world. The Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago has a very long, detailed
mission statement, which also refers to environmental education EE goals in an informal
learning context.
Accomplishing the goals of environmental education is not easy, but it is
important and necessary as one strategy to prevent or solve environmental problems and
to sustain natural systems. No one aspect of environmental education can achieve all of
EE's goals, but musewns can playa role in contributing to environmental awareness,
appreciation and concern, which can lead to REB. Musewns can also provide for the
enjoyment of people, and their exhibits and educational programs can affect visitors'
learning processes. Instead of discussing the entire field of environmental education, I
consider musewns as a specific venue of environmental education.
10
Chapter 2: The Museum as a Center of Informal Learning
I.
The Museum as an Evolving Institution
The collection and conservation of objects, research, and display are historically
seen as functions of museums. However, the priority or emphasis of these functi ons has
evolved over time. At the beginning of museum history in Western society, museums
were the collections belong to wealthy people or places for scholars to come and study .
These early museums were generally not open to the public. As World Expo sitions
became popular at beginning of the 20 th century, museum directors began to realize the
huge interest that the public had in exhibitry, and the wide public support that could be
realized by making museums available to the public. The International Council of
Museums, organized with the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO-ICOM), an international organization of museums and museum
professionals, was created in 1949.
The changing definitions of museums by ICOM help us understand how museum
philosophy has been shaped in modem society. In 1949, the first UNESCO-ICOM
definition defined what a museum contained but neglected to state any over-arching
purpose:
The word "museums" includes all collections open to the public, of artistic,
technical, scientific, historical or archaeological material, including zoos and
botanical gardens, but excluding libraries, . ....
(Constitution and By-Laws of the International Council of Museum, 1946, Article
II-section 2)
However, in the 1950's, the idea of communication with the public began to
develop. In the 1956 definition, a broadened philosophical view emerged as this
statement indicates:
The word of museum here denotes any permanent establishment, administered in
the general interest, for the purpose of preserving, studying, enhancing by various
means and, in particular, of exhibiting to the public for its delectation and
11
instruction groups of objects and specimens of cultural value: artistic, historical,
scientific and technological collections, botanical and zoological gardens and
aquarIum ....
Article II - Definition (ICOM Constitution, July 9th, 1956, Article II-Definition)
More recently, modem museum philosophy was defined in 1974 as follows:
Section II - Definitions:
Article 3
A museum is a non-profit making, permanent institution in the
service of the society and its development, and open to the public, which
acquires, conserves, researches, communicates, and exhibits, for purposes of
study, education and enjoyment, material evidence of man and his environment.
Article 4
In addition to museums designated as such, ICOM recognizes that the
following comply with the above definition:
a. conservation institutes and exhibition galleries permanently maintained by
libraries and archive centres.
b. natural, archaeological, and ethnographic monuments and sites and
historical monuments and sites of a museum nature, for their acquisition,
conservation and communication activities.
c. institutions displaying live specimens, such as botanical and zoological
gardens, aquaria, vivaria, etc.
d. nature reserves.
e. science centres and planetariums.
(ICOM Statutes, adopted by the Eleventh General Assembly of ICOM,
Copenhagen, 14 June 1974)
Throughout these decades, museum philosophy was shaped through
communication and interaction with the broader society. However, there have been
difficulties when these newer philosophies were adapted in already existing institutions.
Museums serve different roles as institutions, and there are debates over the priority of
these roles. Similarly, there is a debate about the different functions of universities and
how professors balance their research and teaching. For museums, the conflicting
functions have often appeared as "popularization" verses "scholarship." The conflict
between them emerged when museums first opened to public, and has been brewing more
12
or less ever since. According to Lisa Robert, "[W]ith the emergence of professional
museum educators in the early
zo" century, that conflict was transformed forever, as
where the political and organizational structures by which museum had traditionally
operated" (Roberts, 1997, p. 13).
When popularization of museums began at the beginning of the
zo" century,
museums were seen first as "indoor amusement parks" by visitors. They were not yet
seen as informal learning settings for the general public. Although leisure experiences
can positively influence people's learning process, the purpose of a museum is not only
to create positive leisure experiences for visitors. The traditional view of the museum,
which focused on collection and research for scholars, put educators in a new position at
first. They needed to literally educate the public that museums provided more than an
elite place for research and more than simply a place for amusement. There were
difficulties in this transition 100 years ago, and these same difficulties and tensions over
the real and perceived purposes of museums still exist today. The tensions concern the
museum's mission, responsibilities, and methods of operation.
The newer perspective of education in museums, which is the focus of my study,
emerged in the 1970s. Museum professionals realized that the museum, in addition to its
curatorial and scholarly functions, is also a learning environment, where all of the
following can take place: "instruction," "education," and "enrichment" (Screven, 1974).
A priority function of museums became that of education through exhibition and
educational programs. Theoretically, a consensus emerged that museums should serve
society, not through the scholars and their scholarship with collections, but through
communicating directly with the general public through exhibitions and interpretive
programs. However, there was also a challenge here: As much as museums embraced this
new educational mission, they have had ongoing difficulty developing an original style of
education to maximize informal learning. Pedagogy of informal learning was, and still is,
lacking.
In the first decades of this new point of view (the 1970s and 1980s), museums as
learning centers were seen as museum-centered, but not as they are seen now, as visitor
centered. There was recognition of the necessity of having educators as legitimate staff in
13
museums, but the first museum instructors were school-teachers. They evolved a style of
teaching in institutions very similar to formal learning in schools (Robert, 1997). The
style of museum education is different from schools because museum education uses
collections and exhibits. However, museum education occurred mostly in formal
educational programs, not through exhibitions: "In the last thirty years, museum
education professionals have focused on developing appropriate teaching metho ds for
both face-to-face teaching (workshops, talks, drama) and distance learning metho ds
(teachers' pack, loan boxes and kits), and on establishing a professional profile within the
museum organization" (Hooper-Greenhill 1999, p. 4). These programs expanded the
educational role of museums largely through increasing the accessibility to the specialties
of museums with their collections, objects. As John Hennigar explains, objects are
fascinating and not age-specific, and they have the potential as educational tools for
people (Hennigar, 1980). However, educational programs in museums would generally
limit the number of visitors in attendance, similar to that of a classroom setting, and the
programs tended to be the extension of the school classroom with heavily didactic
teaching . Museums had yet to recognize the possibilities inherent to informal learning.
With these difficulties, the theoretical or ideal museum education as an informal
learning center was being applied and refined at certain "leading edge" museums, and
these approaches were slowly accepted by museum professionals. New styles of
museums emerged based on a pedagogy and psychology of informal and highly
interactive learning. For example, the Exploratorium in San Francisco was begun based
on John Dewey's theories of constructivism with Frank Oppenheimer's belief that
"museums of science were vitally needed for the general public" in 1969. In the 1960's,
the Boston Children's museum started getting objects out of cases and into children's
hands in exhibit areas where children could interact, experiment, and follow their own
curiosity. Although these museums were seen as special, in fact experimental, museums,
they played a practical and very important role in the development of both museum
philosophy and museum practice. In addition, zoos and aquaria are sometimes also seen
as special institutions with leading-edge educational practices that focus on the visitor's
14
enjoyment. Obviously, zoos and aquaria have very spec ial kinds of collections--living
ones.
Discussions about museum philosophy are complex because so many different
types of museums exist and their particular missions reflect different perspectives:
"Museums are so extraordinarily varied in their origin, discipline, scale, governance,
structure, collections, sources of funding, endowment, staffing, facilities, and community
setting.. ." (Weil, 2002, p. 5). However, the baseline idea is that museums serve society
and its ongoing development. Museums offer a public service. As different museums
have different emphases and functions, each museum also needs to have an external
function within a wider community. As the result of different emphasis of functions with
internal and external factors, the degree of openness to the public and the degree of
purposes of study, education, and enjoyment can vary depending on different museums.
Each museum needs to find its own methods to serve communities in society with
imperative factors, which are preservation, scholarship, and object-based public
programming and education.
From a management perspective, Stephen Weil explains that some criteria for a
good museum are the same as those for public service organizations or not-for-profit
sectors. The criteria are purposive, capable, effective, and efficient. Being "purposive"
means having a clear sense of what purpose external to themselves they are seeking to
accomplish, which is especially important. Other criteria are capable (of commanding the
means required to accomplish those purposes), effective (are demonstrably able to
accomplish the purpose they seek to accomplish), and efficient (are able to accomplish
those purposes in a maximally economic way) . For museums, being purposive is the
mission of the museum, and the other criteria rely on the mission. Therefore, it is
important for a museum have clear mission.
The educational role of museums is my focus in this study. In the next three
sections, I will explore the educational role of museums from different perspectives:
pedagogy, exhibit design, and museum evaluation.
15
II.
Effective Environments for Learning in Museums
To provide effective learning opportunities for museum visitors, understanding
people's learning process is important. Although the learning process is complex, I will
review important learning theories and the venues of learning, related to environmental
education and museum learning. For the goals of environmental education, to reach the
responsible environmental behavior, there are different learning outcomes, such as
awareness, knowledge, skills, attitudes, and understanding. These different outcomes of
learning cannot be provided just in formal learning settings, but they can be provided
through different learning experience of individuals in any place in any time of people's
lives.
An early important advocate of education is John Dewey who offered a theory of
education in a social context in Experience and Education (1938). He argued that
experience creates people's own meanings. Based on existing knowledge from past
experience, people construct their own meaning in the process of integrating new
knowledge. When Dewey was writing, traditional classroom teaching was focused on
remembering the facts, and assessments mostly asked if students memorized these facts.
The traditional style of education saw learning heavily in terms of accumulating
information without integrating understanding of facts. John Dewey "attempted to call
attention to the larger and deeper issues of Education so as to suggest their proper frame
of reference" (1938, p. 6). Dewey believed that if experiences are interesting, stimulating,
and occur in non-threatening environments, people enjoy their learning process. Dewey's
ideas are complex, but his argument-experiences foster understanding, new
understanding is constructed in social contexts and added to prior learning-has gained
widespread acceptance among educators in recent decades.
As a result that individual experiences relate to the process of learning, "learning"
is difficult to measure, but we need to know what people learn. Most studies about
education and learning have occurred in fonnallearning settings, such as school
classrooms. In formal settings, input is what students are supplied, such as curriculum,
instruction, and assessment tasks, and output is what students give back as finished work
on assignment and assessment. In classrooms, assessment is a careful judging of the
16
quality and range of achievement through analyzing student accomplishm ents or
demonstrations of knowledge and skills . Tests are one of the techni ques to evaluate the
achievement. In formal settings, teachers can control input and assess student
accomplishment.
On the other hand, in informal learning settings, input and output are not as
clearly defined, and facilitators to assess learners' attainment are often absent. In
museums, the inputs are the exhibits and physical environment in the museum, but the
output (visitor knowledge, skills, etc.) is not clear unless the museum conducts an
evaluation. Setting goals, deciding what people might gain, and the outcome of learning
are just as important for careful preparation as the inputs. As we try to understand
effective learning process, we need to understand how people learn.
Recent studies on human learning affirm much of what Dewey advocated in the
early part of the
zo" century. Enjoyable experiences motivate people to have further
experiences, which can further deepen learning. "When complex information is presented
in a way that is enjoyable-intrinsically rewarding-the person will be motivated to
pursue further learning" (Csikszentmihalyi and Hermanson 1995, p. 35) Motivating
experiences with active participation can also help significant learning processes.
"Doing" helps people to connect their past knowledge to current experience, rather than
just being recipient of information. Recent studies also show "motivation affects the
amount oftime that people are willing to devote to learning. Humans are motivated to
develop competence and to solve problems" (Bransford, J. D., Brown A. L., & Cocking,
R R, Eds., 1999, p. 48).
However, people are not just motivated by enjoyable experience, but motivation
is developed for both extrinsic reward or punishment and for intrinsic reasons. Assigning
tasks with a goal set by educators is extrinsic motivation. However, if learners understand
the goal, the same task can intrinsically motivate learners. When learners are aware of
what they are learning, they become independent learners who are capable and sustaining
their own learning with intrinsic motivation. As independent learners understand the
goals, they can take control oftheir learning by themselves in leaner-centered
environment.
17
The importance of helping people take control oftheir own learning, by engaging
in and reflecting on active learning, is emphasized in recent studies as the practice of
metacognition: "Metacognition refers to people's learning abilities to predict their
performances on various tasks and to monitor their current levels of mastery and
understanding" (Bransford, J. D. Eds., 1999, p. 12). This learning process focuses on
learners' sense-making, self-assessment, and reflection on what worked and what needs
to be improved.
Professionals are also finding out that learning processes "are affected by the
degree to which learning environments are student centered, knowledge centered,
assessment centered, and community centered" (Bransford, J. D. Eds., 1999, p. xvi).
Much ofthis new literature on human learning and on the design oflearning
environments focuses on K-12 schools. However, most of these recommended practices
apply just as well to informal learning environments. Learner-centered environments are
reflected in the following quotes:
• Environments that pay careful attention to the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and
beliefs that learners bring to the educational setting,
• Knowledge-centered environments intersect with learner centered
environment when instruction begins with a concern for students' initial
preconceptions about the subject matter,
• Knowledge-centered environments also focus on the kind of information and
activities that help students develop an understanding of disciplines
(Bransford, J. D. Eds., 1999, p. 121-124).
Human learning is not limited to formal learning settings because learning is
deepened by human experience. However, this does not mean that all random experiences
support an individual's learning. Informal learning can provide more organized learning
experiences than random experiences. According to the Informal Science Education
Program (ISE) of National Science Foundation (NSF), Informal learning is as is defined
as:
Informal education consists of learning activities that are voluntary and self
directed, life-long, and motivated mainly by intrinsic interests, curiosity,
exploration, manipulation, fantasy, task completion, and social interaction.
Informal learning can be linear or non-linear and often is self-paced and visual- or
object- oriented. It provides an experimental base and motivation for further
18
activity and learning. The outcomes of an infonnalleaming experience in science,
mathematics, and technology include a better understanding of concepts, topics,
processes, and thinking in scientific and technical disciplines, as well as increased
knowledge about career opportunities in these fields.
(lSE of NSF, 1997)
Museums are one of the places where infonnallearning occurs with objectives
(collection) and professional views. Museums also can provide enjoyable moments for
visitors. As Judy Diamond has argued, "Infonnallearning provides no immedi ate
external rewards, but it reminds us that learning can be fun, that it can be enjoyed as
excitement, exploration, and play" (1999, p. 32).
John H Falk and Lynn D. Dierking, major contemporary theorists about museum
learning, have put forward the notion of museum learning as "free-choice learning".
According to them, "Free-choice learning is the most common type of learning in which
people engage. It is self-directed, voluntary, and guided by individual needs and
interests-learning that we will engage in throughout our lives. Since it is the learning
that we do when we want to, by definition it involves a strong measure of choice-c-choice
over what, why, where, when, and how we will learn" (2002, p. 9). Free-choice learning
happens naturally in society, these authors contend, and it is often very meaningful for
learners because this process makes life-long learning into a reality, which is qualities of
learning.
Free-choice learning has played an important role for people's quality of life in
the learning society. Free-choice learning situations can lead to significant learning for
learners, from what we now understand are the most promising conditions for human
learning. However, there are difficulties on how goals of informal learning can be set by
the learners at the beginning of mastery, in the process to become mastery, because
beginning learners might not know the goals. Informal learning centers can help set goals
at the beginning for learners. However, the role of museums as learning centers is not just
providing information for individuals' learning. As a sector of educational institutions in
society, museums must also support people in becoming life-long learners . According to
Bransford, J. D. Eds., "[W]hen learners are aware of what they learn, learners can
19
become independent learners who are capable of sustaining their own learning-in
essence, this is how human beings become life-long learners" (1999 , p. xiv). Although
there are not simple formulas regarding what works best with "free choice learning" in
learning centers, keeping this idea in mind is valuable when museums rethink their
missions and service to society.
Our growing understanding of human learning processes provides suggestions
about ways to design effective informal learning environments. Our current theories
about informal learning, free-choice learning, life-long learning, and a learning society all
are contributing now to how exhibits and learning experiences are designed in Western
museums. Museums have the potential to be highly effective informal learning venues
through their exhibitions and educational programs. Museums also can be places that
provide learning for the goals of Environmental Education. In the next section, I wi ll
explore how exhibit design can provide effective learning environments.
III.
Exhibit Design
In museums, exhibit designs can be prepared for an effective learning
environment for visitors as well as for enjoyment. In this section, I will describe some
important ideas for developing exhibitions from both the learning-process perspective
and a practical perspective.
Each exhibition should have message or goal. Without a unifying message,
exhibitions are just places where collections are displayed. Visitors can experience the
collections at these places, or they can enjoy the exhibits if the exhibition was designed to
motivate visitors to have fun, such as with interactive devices. Beverly Serrell, a leading
thinker on exhibit design, explains how important it is for the exhibition to have a big
idea, which she defines "A big idea is a sentence-a statement-ofwhat the exhibition is
about. Including a subject, an action, and a consequence" (Serrell, 1996, p. 1). The big
idea might not be stated as a direct message for the visitors, but it is important for the
overall design of the exhibition. For example, at a children's museum, children just have
fun at exhibitions through playing. Although children learn from experience, if the
connection between the exhibition and experience of children in the community cannot
20
be found in their real life, it is just playground, providing a random experience. If the big
idea of the exhibition is designed with understanding of developmental stages of children,
with intent to make a connection between the exhibition and individual's life, the
exhibition can provide a more effective and lasting learning experience. Another example
in a natural history museum is that various rocks of collection in geological exhibition
can make sense only for visitors who are interested in geology. However, if there is a big
idea, which can be presented in a meaningful way to other, less interested visitors , the
exhibition can be designed to connect their lives or stimulate their interests-and perhaps
create a more meaningful learning experience.
Falk and Dierking, the "free choice learning" advocates, propose the interactive
experience model. They propose that interactive experience occurs within three contexts;
physical context, personal context, and social context: "Museum experience occurs
within physical context, a collection of structures and things we call the museum . Within
the museum is the visitor, who perceives the world through his own personal context.
Sharing this experience are various other people, each with their own personal context,
which together create a social context" (Falk and Dierking, 1992. p. 4). Museums provide
the interactive experience as its special learning environment.
"Interpretation" is one of the important ideas in creating effective learning
environments in informal settings . The philosophy of interpretation has grown in the
United States as public parks and associated exhibits and visitor centers have evolved.
Exhibits, signage, self-guided trail leaflets, and live interpreters work to explain and bring
alive natural or cultural history. In Interpreting Our Heritage, Freeman Tilden explains
his six principles below:
1. Any interpretation that does not somehow relate what is being displayed or
described to something within the personality or experience of the visitor will be
sterile.
2. Information, as such, is not interpretation. Interpretation is revelation based upon
information. But they are entirely different things. However, all interpretation
includes information.
3. Interpretation is an art, which combines many arts, whether the materials
presented are scientific, historical or architectural. Any art is in some degree
teachable.
4. The chief aim of interpretation is not instruction, but provocation.
21
5. Interpretation should aim to present a whole rather than a part, and must address
itself to the whole man rather than any phase.
6. Interpretation addressed to children (say, up to the age of 12) should not be a
dilution of the presentation to adults, but should follow a fundamentally different
approach. To be at its best it will require a separate program.
(Tilden, 1977, p. 9)
There are some important elements in these principles related to providing
effective learning experiences in museums. For example, the first principle relates to the
importance of connecting personal experience with the learning objectives of an exhibit.
The fourth principle says that interpretation is more than just presenting information or
knowledge, and it is not instruction, but provocation, which helps grow feelings, such as
surprise, amazement, or curiosity. With provocation, the visitor would get the motivation
to learn more. Although there might be live interpreters in museums, my focus is
interpretive exhibition, which themselves should reflect the elements of Tilden's
interpretive principles. Beverly Serrell explains interpretive exhibition as "displays that
tell stories, contrast points of view, present challenging issues, or strives to change
people's attitudes" (1996. p. 9).
Making "hooks" with the visitors (that is, capturing their attention long enough
for learning to take place) in exhibitions is important for visitors' learning. Ifvisitors
were interested in the topic (of the exhibit) because they already have interest and
understanding in the exhibit's topic, they would carefully observe the exhibition. They
possibly will integrate the information or knowledge in the exhibition with their already
existing knowledge. The presentation of an exhibition also can "hook" the visitors
through enjoyable aspects of the exhibit, or through looking attractive or even beautiful.
Even if visitors might not understand the topics or message of exhibitions, if presentation
of exhibitions can make the "hooks" at the beginning, visitors spend more time in an
exhibition instead ofjust walking through the exhibitions. "[T]he more time people using
an exhibition, the more opportunities they can create for themselves to learn" (Serrell
Beverly, 1998). "Hooks" are necessary to keep visitors to stay in the exhibition.
Providing exhibits, with which visitors can use different senses such as seeing,
listening, smelling, and touching, is an important technique for making "hooks" for
22
visitors. With cognitive map theory, a widely adopted view of how people process
information, brain researchers have delved into how into our brains determine which
stimuli are attended to and which are ignored: "Before focusing attention, the brain stem
passively receives many sensory stimuli from our sense organs. The brain cannot process
all the information so it actively scans the stimuli searching for anything that requires
immediate attention ...During this search the brain is constantly switching its focus
between external events and internal memories and interests" (Beck and Cable, 1999, p.
17). As people use different senses, they remember what they experience.
There is a danger, however, in just focusing on making the exhibit aesthetically
attractive. Presentations, which can employ "hooks," also need to have messages that are
clear and instructive: "Visitors should be able to understand what an element is about,
grasp its context in the whole exhibition, and find it personally meaningful and useful"
(Serrell, 1996, p. 5).
It is necessary to know visitors' views and reactions toward a given exhibit. Alt
and Shaw studied a long list of exhibit attributes, which could be communicated to all
visitors without ambiguity (Alt and Shaw, 1984). They asked what visitors thought about
the exhibit and sorted answers into eight categories: attractivenesslnoticeability, overall
evaluation, clarity and ease of comprehension, evaluation of subject matter, required
visitor response, emotional reactions, visual effects, and appeal to different age groups.
This study provides important information for exhibit design.
Exhibitions also need to appeal to visitors who have different preferences or styles
of learning, integrating ideas, adapting knowledge, and forming meaning from a learning
environment. Among a wide of variety of learning styles, one widely used in educational
circles is the Learning Style Inventory created by David Kolb, and elaborated by Bernice
McCarthy. They formed four types of learners: imaginative learners, who favor feeling
and reflecting; analytical learners, who favor reflecting and thinking; common sense
learners, who favor thinking and doing through applications; and dynamic learners, who
favor creating and acting (Kolb, 1984), (McCarthy, 1997).
If exhibitions accommodate visitors' learning styles by providing different
approaches to learn about the objects, exhibitions can be effective learning environments.
23
For example, imaginative learners might enjoy social interactions that permit
conversations with others. Analytical learners might value the presentation of facts and
sequential ideas or theoretical questions. Dynamic learners might enjoy a laboratory
environment, where they can try what they want to do. Some exhibits try to acconunodate
all these kinds of learning styles at once.
The design of the physical structure of the exhibition, includes sequence, pace,
and noise levels, such of these affect the comfort levels of different learners. The best
thing the design of the exhibition can do is providing different choices for visi tors, and
make also the appearance of choices clear.
To provide an effective learning environment, any exhibit needs a big idea or a
clear overall message. Effective interpretation, clear goals for visitor learning, making
"hooks" to involve visitors, knowing what visitors want, and a knowledge of visitor
learning styles help us understand what to pay attention to as we design each exhibits and
the overall exhibition. However, exhibit designs cannot fully control visitors' responses
or how much they learn. As informal learning centers, museums can provide
opportunities for visitors' learning, but museums cannot force learning. In other words,
museums develop exhibits as input, but museums cannot control outcomes.
Nevertheless, it is important to evaluate how each exhibit is coming across, and whether
and how visitors' learning is occurring. In the next section, I will explore some methods
for evaluation processes in museums.
IV.
Evaluation
"Visitor evaluations provide clues to the effectiveness of exhibits and programs,
and provide insights into how people learn in informal educational settings" (Diamond,
1999, p. 11). However, evaluation research also is an important aid for management
decisions in determining the viability of any institution (Loomis, 1986). As museums
change their roles as educational institutions in society, museum evaluation has become
increasingly necessary. It seems there are differences between VISITOR evaluation and
EXHffiIT evaluation. However, visitors and exhibits interact with each other, and we
cannot evaluate them separately. Therefore, I will discuss museum evaluation as a whole.
24
Evaluations are generally categorized into three types: front-end, formative, and
summative. Front-end evaluation provides background and baseline information for
future program planning. It can tell about visitors' prior knowledge and experiences, their
styles of learning, and their expectations regarding the institution. The primary goal of
front-end evaluation is to learn about the audience before a program or exhibit has been
designed in order to predict how visitors will respond once the project has been
developed. This information can help assure that the final product will meet visitor needs
and project goals.
Formative evaluation provides information about how a program or exhibit can be
improved. It occurs while a project is under development. The evaluator measures visitor
responses to models, plans, or prototypes of the program or exhibit. A proto type is a
working vision, usually of an interactive exhibit. Information from formative evaluation
is used to make changes that improve the design of a program or exhibit.
Summative evaluation tells about the impact of a project after it is completed. It is
conducted after an exhibit has opened to the public or after a program has been presented.
Generally the results of a summative evaluation will be used to improve future activities
through an understanding of existing programs (Diamond, 1999). The purposes of
evaluation for particular exhibitions usually determine what types of evaluation are
undertaken. As with other research projects, budget and time also determine how
evaluation is conducted and communicated internally and externally.
Another aspect of museum evaluation relates to the identities of institutions in
wider external communities. Museums might use evaluation for marketing and
institutional self-study. The use of market research helps to increase visitation. Research
about public perceptions, barriers to visitation, and the social nature of visitation, can
help improve the roles of museums as institutions. Public outreach programs can be more
effective if market research identifies the public's needs more clearly.
There are also management criteria for museums as public service organizations
(mentioned in the beginning of this chapter), such as the qualities of being purposive,
capable, effective, and efficient. As institutions, museums have two fundamental
functions: as a research and learning environment for scholars, and as an educational
25
setting for the public. The coexistence of these two different responsibilities as an
institution can create tensions related to institutional structures and priorities. For
example, a simple evaluation might not provide enough information to make decisions,
such as how to balance budget priorities and staffing between the museum research and
collection and the exhibits and education programs. It is necessary, however, to seek the
best acceptance of museums. It is always important to keep in mind that evaluation
strategies are tools for improving both the exhibits and the museum as a whole.
v.
A Discussion about Educational Role of Museum
To summarize this chapter, the roles of museums in society have evolved
dramatically in the last 100 years. Most museums have some combination of collections,
research, exhibits, and educational programs for both scholars and the general public.
Although it is sometimes difficult to balance these functions within a museum as an
institution, educational roles for the public recently became important. The focus of this
study is the educational function of museums.
The relationship between universities and museums is another issue. Each
museum has different relationships with communities and universities. Museums and
Universities, edited by Janet Solinger, explains educational programs in museums as
continuing education. There are possibilities that museums and universities cover each
other's role, because both institutions have some of the same functions in society. In the
other words, museums and universities can share research, education, and collection.
How they share or work together, however, depends on specific contexts of universities
and museums in different communities.
Museum exhibitions create occasions for education. Exhibitions provide free
choice learning for visitors. Museum educators develop educational programs as effective
learning environments. My focus on the educational roles of the museum is educational
perspectives of exhibition, especially for the goals of environmental education. I
summarized the aspects of lasting and effective learning according to contemporary
literature and the aspects of museum learning offer in their exhibitions as effective
learning environments in Table 1. In the next chapter, I will try to apply these
26
environments in a more practical sense for the Museum of Nature and Human Activity,
Hyogo.
27
Table 1: Aspects of Museums Learning that has the Potential to Create Effective
Learning Environments
Part A. Museums as Venues for Learning
Aspects of lastina and effective learnina
Learning occurs socially
Learning is continuous throughout peoples'
lives
Learning is interactive, and involves personal
communication
Learning occurs in a non-threatening
environment
Aspects of museum learning environments
• Most museum learning occurs in a social
context; visitors often come to museums in
groups (family groups, school classes, youth
groups, groups of friends)
• Museum can serve all ages
Many museum exhibits invite visitors'
interactions
• Interpretive exhibits comm unicate with
visitors
• Interpreters communicate with visitors
• Museum exhibits can provide an enjoyable
learning environment that is non
threatening.
• Most exhibits invite learning without
extrinsic pressures such as tests, grades, or
competition among learners.
•
Part B. Exhibits as Effective Vehicles for Learning
Aspects of lasting and effective learning
Learning relates to and builds on learners'
previous experience or personal lives
Learning with doing (exploration)
•
Learning stimulates motivation and curiosity
•
•
•
Learning is controlled by learners themselves
(Learner-centered)
•
•
•
Learning uses different senses
•
Desired aspects of museum exhibits and
programming
Museum exhibits should build on visitors'
knowledge and relate to their lives
Museum exhibits should be hands-on.
(Encouraging visitors to do something by
themselves)
Museum exhibits should help to develop
visitors' intrinsic motivation and curiosity
Museum exhibits should provide extrinsic
motivation with interactive devices, puzzles
and questions (stimulating visitors to find
correct answers or explore problems)
Museum exhibits should let visitors
understand what they are learning
Museum exhibits should be designed so
that learners experience them in a self-paced
way
Exhibits should provide choices for
different visitors
Museum exhibits should invite learning
through multiple senses .
28
Chapter 3: History and Current Situation in Japanese Museums and in
the Museum of Nature and Human Activities, Hyogo
I.
Brief History of Japanese Museum Focus
The definition of Japanese museums is based on the first ICOM definition (1949)
in 1951. The definition appears as a federal law, which is a part of Social Educ ation Law.
Therefore, fundamental museum functions are the maintenance of collections, and their
preservation for research and educational displays for the public. However, researching is
the primary institutional emphasis in Japanese museums, and generally education for the
public is considered quite secondary. Historically, most of Japanese natural history
museums have had only researchers, and few (to none) specially trained curators,
educators, exhibit designers, and preparators who preserve and prepare the collections.
Beginning in the 1950's, researchers themselves developed the style of Japanese
museums although it was not easy for them to handle all the functions of museums.
Although education occurs in Japanese museums, most still focus on research. Their
function is generally considered to be scholarship. Although each museum has a different
emphasis, the tendency of most Japanese museums has been not to emphasize the
educat ional function. However, this pattern is changing as museums are now starting to
be seen as informal learning centers.
One external factor that influenced this changing trend began in 2002, when, the
Japanese school system started 5-days a week curriculum for "education free from
pressure" (The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, 2002).
The Ministry was attempting to reduce the content-heavy and test-filled curriculum in
order to provide children with more time to explore careers and find personal meaning in
their lives. Although there are debates about this new approach, museums began to be
seen as an alternative learning place for school children. It seems that museums as
informal learning centers, however, were not ready to provide the learning opportunities
expected of them by the educational establishment. Another external factor was that as
retired workers increased, the museum's role as a place for life-long learning also
29
increased. However, without a history or cultural norm of educational professionals in
museums, there were practical difficulties for institutions to evolve as infonnallearning
centers.
Another pressure for museums in their attempt to become more education-focused
emerged from their management systems. Most of the natural history museums in Japan
are govenunental institutions. Therefore, they have not had to seek much financial
independence. When the local govenunents in Japan were financially stable within the
Japanese economy, there was little pressure to become financially independent as an
academic institution. However, as the govenunental economic situation changed in
1990's, the govenunent started asking the museums to provide public services to sustain
the museums as well as work toward greater financial independence. In order to provide
services, museums began to focus on a variety of educational offerings such as seminars,
packages for school classes, and researchers' lecture series. However, while educational
staffs at museums grew, many exhibits remained the same. Over time, there has been a
realization of the necessity for exhibits themselves to change as museums evolve from
displays of static collections to active, informal learning centers. The focus of this study,
The Museum of Nature and Human Activities, Hyogo is no exception to this story of
Japanese natural history museums.
In recent years, there has been a realization of the necessity for changing
museums among museum professionals. The Japanese Association of Museums set up a
special committee to discuss and explore ways for museums to adopt an "ideal museum
style" (2003). The committee produced a report that explained the necessity of having
focused mission statements and management plans. Unfortunately, zoos and aquaria staff
members were not represented on this committee, and it seems as though access to this
highly-academic association is not opened to the practitioners. However, this report
represents a beginning of the discussion of museum professionals from the academic and
educational fields associated with museums.
Hiroyuki Iida, associate professor of education in Tsukuba University, conducted
a survey, which was part of the "ideal museum style" project. He surveyed museums'
self-evaluations, such as their mission statements, management plans, and policies.
30
According to the survey of 581museums, 38.6% of museums have formal mission
statements, 27.0 % have formal management plans, 3 1.5 % have a formal exhibit design
plan, and 25 .6 % have formal educational policies. There might be a necessity to change
this situation because without written policies, it is hard to share ideas among museum
professionals, not to mention improving the process of communicating with the public.
Although museum evaluations are not yet popular in Japan, written statements are also
important for the evaluation process.
Interestingly, three private companies in Japan are now publishing magazines
about museums, which contain leading-edge ideas about museum exhibition as well as
roles of museums in society. Two of them are an exhibit-design company and a group of
exhibit-design companies (Tansei Institute and Institute of Cultural Environments).
Another company provides seminars, consulting, and publication about museums
(UMPromotion). They provide articles including interviews of museum professionals not
only with Japanese professionals, but with U.S and European museum professionals as
well, and they also conduct research about museum effectiveness. Unlike American
museum exhibit development, in which internal design staff create most of the exhibits,
these private exhibit design companies have resources about museum exhibitions. They
might take the initiative not just to design the exhibit but to shape its entire message as
well and even provide the exhibit objects to present context, such as georamas and visual
Images.
Some positive movements within Japanese museum professionals are emerging.
Yoshihiro Miki, who has worked at the Boston Children Museum, the Seattle Art
Museum, and the Japanese American National Museum, writes about exhibit and visitor
evaluation and management process in the U.S in his book and articles (Miki 2001, 2003,
and Murai ed, 2002. p. 75-116). There is also a practical museum (Neo Museum), which
experiments with providing "visitor-centered" learning centers, based on the educational
theories of Nob uyuki Ueda. He studied education at Central Michigan University and
Harvard University (Ueda, 2001) before opening the museum.
There is also increasing realization about the importance of scientists' roles in
society. Yugo Ono, professor of environmental earth science at Hokkaido University,
31
suggests the need for the involvement of scienti sts for environmental problems (Ono,
2003). He emphasizes the necessity of scientists being as in informal learning centers,
such as visitor centers and sites for eco-tourism, With his understanding of the necessity
of changing human behavior to solve environmental problems, he also suggests learning
ancient cultural perspectives, such as about the native people in Hokkaido, in addition to
learning about guiding scientific principles. Although he does not focus on muse ums as
learning centers, his point is that scientists should become interpreters for the public of
their understanding of science and culture.
Unfortunately, as noted earlier, museum evaluation, especially exhibit evaluation,
is not yet popular in Japan. However, Japanese museum professionals have just started
realizing the necessity of evaluation within the past few years (Murai ed, 2002). Japanese
evaluation tends to focus on management perspectives, such as visitor numbers and
ratings of quality as a public service. This is because evaluations were seen as a
responsibility to explain museums as governmental institutions. These evaluations often
use quantitative methods, but not qualitative. However, it is not easy to evaluate public
service and education without qualitative methods. The evaluation of education or
learning outcomes often requires qualitative methods and summative evaluations of
visitor experiences. Evaluations also tend to be assessments of the institution, which
provide information for political decision-making. Evaluation, however, should also be
used for improve the quality of the institution.
II.
The Museum of Nature and Human Activities, Hyogo
This museum is fairly representative of most prefectural museums in Japan. It is a
fairly traditional but reaching for new practices and methods of visitor engagement.
Hyogo Prefecture is located in the west of Honshu Island, Japan's main island .
The Prefecture extends from Seto Inland Sea on the south to Japan Sea on the north, and
it contains mountainous areas. The natural environment of Prefecture is diverse, and the
residents' life styles also are varied. The Museum of Nature and Human Activities,
Hyogo opened in October 10, 1992 in Sanda City. The location of the museum is in a
rapidly developing suburban community where natural environment still remains, but
32
most residents commute to work in cities, such as Kobe and Osaka. Access of visitors is
limited mostly to residents in the Prefecture, because there are limited other attractions in
Sanda City. Most visitors are residents in the area or students on school field trips. The
phenomenon of very few general museum visitors and few tourists is characteristic of
many other Japanese, too, especially natural history museums. It is important to increase
visitors to the museum by improving it as an effective learning environment.
The purpose of this museum is to help residents of Prefecture Hyogo and others to
appreciate the beauty and dignity of the natural environment around us. Here visitors can
enjoy unique exhibits and educational programs about nature and human life. This
mission relates to the goals of environmental education as well as to the objectives of a
governmental institution.
The museum is set up as the University ofHyogo Prefecture, Institute of Nature
and Environmental Science. Staff members of the museum are also professionals with
formal appointments in the university: 20 researchers hold additional posts in the
university, and 17 researchers are full time for the museum. Therefore, this museum
functions as an academic institution.
University professionals usually conduct research in their academic field and
teach students in the university. The purpose of the museum, however, is based on the
idea that the professionals can make the results of their studies directly available to the
public. Museum visitors, however, often do not expect learning in the museum but come
more for entertainment. In addition, the general public cannot understand most of the
studies being conducted by the university professionals, because they do not have same
background or understanding ofthe topic. Thus museum staffhave a problem in
presenting their results to visitors.
The museum also lacks educators, exhibit designers, curators, and consistent of
floor staff. Three "museum teachers," all retired school principles, lecture to school
groups. They are hired by a non-profit organization (volunteer group), so they are not
officially staff of the museum. The department of life-long learning has four staff
members, who are clerical staff of the prefectural education board and do not have
experience as educational practioners. In addition, the staff members of the department of
33
administration are also clerical staff of the Prefectural education bo ard. Staff of the
Prefectural education board are subject to peri odic transfers. The floor and guide staff are
temporary employees of the museum dispatched from personnel agencies. Therefore the
staff members who interact with visitors most often do not have full understanding of the
museum.
The staff of other departments, such as planning and coordination and life-long
project office, are comprised of researchers who hold the post in addition to the ir
priorities in academic. Within this structure, an overall educational objective for the
museum exhibits is lacking. Therefore, the professionals (researchers) need to learn to
"come down" to meet visitors' understanding. In turn, visitors need to be enabled to take
museum learning more seriously.
Under the slogan of "Next Museum Concept" by the administration of the
museum, the museum has been working on, over the past five years, a plan to become a
"consortisrn museum" that would have a major influence in a creation of a sustainable
society. This planning became public in a report with two main objectives: support life
long learning and enrich "think-tank" about nature and environment. According to the
report, to support life-long learning, the museum should improve the exhibits, enrich the
collection, enrich practical sites for life-long learning, such as by working with parks in
the Prefecture, and train of community leader for life-long learning.
In 2000, the museum started "seminars": providing the programs, such as lectures,
hiking, and other activities. Researchers have the seminars for publics who are interested
in the topics. The museum also opened a "museum school" for school children to provide
educational programs for special interest groups, such as about insects. In addition, the
museum started a "caravan program," taking exhibits out to other location. In this
process, the museum has begun to work together with local groups. This program has
increased visitor numbers and created a visible outreach program. There are also
educational packages for schools and the opportunity to ask a researcher to give a class
room lecture.
My focus in this paper is on one part of the process to improve this museum:
designing exhibits as effective learning environments. The museum now has several
34
permanent exhibits, arranged into five themes: Chronicles of Nature in Hyogo, Man and
Nature, Culture of the Generation, The Biological World, and Our Planet with Life. Each
theme has several exhibits in designated exhibition areas . Each of these areas is described
in more detail below. This array of topical exhibits, however, lacks a larger message or a
big idea. In the other words, themes are presented as if they were chapters of a textbook.
Information is presented in ways that are static and generally do not engage the visitor. I
will briefly describe the different exhibit themes.
First, the "Chronicles of Nature in Hyogo" highlights the distinctive natural
beauty of the Tajirna, Tanba, Harima, Hanshin, and Awaji areas with large panels,
videos, and georamas. There is a stuffed animals exhibit with about 20 mammal species
formed in the Prefecture displayed on a stage inside of a fence. Most of the other exhibits
are not actual objects of the collection but pictures with labels or replicas and models
inside cases.
"Man and Nature" reviews the history of man and his environment using similar
techniques of display. One exhibit about wildlife extinction relates to the Washington
Treaty, conservation on International trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora,
decorate with the objects, which banned trading of endangered species. This exhibit has a
very strong message, protecting wildlife through Washington Treaty, although the
message is very straight and almost didactic.
"Culture of the Generation" features intriguing ideas, ranging from urban
redevelopment to personal enrichment. All of these highlight living in harmony with
nature. Most of exhibits in this area are small georamas and models in glass cases with
explanations on labels. One exhibit shows how much a family with 5 members consumes
in a week. This exhibit is decorated with the water bottles, foods, and the extensive
packaging of consumer goods. Again, the message is very straightforward and almost
didactic for recycling and less consumption.
The "Biological World" features wildlife in rivers. There are also exhibits that
introduce us to the wide variety of fauna found in the biological world. Fish behavior is
explained in a glass case with replicas, and explanations are provided with textbook
35
quality. There are computers in this area to research more detai led information, which
children enjoy by finding correct answers from the choices on the screen.
"Our Planet with Life" explains that the earth appeared more than four billion
years ago, and it has been home to a succession of plants and animals. The georama re
creates for us the rich abundance of life in the beech-tree forests of Mt. Hyonosan. There
is also the exhibit of development of life on earth, from its origin over three billion years
ago to the appearance of man, as traced with a succession of fossils. This section includes
a large screen that shows the video of about this theme and some hands-on exhibits for
children to play in the "Borneo Jungle."
As well as the exhibition above, the museum has an Information Center and
Reference Room. In the Information Center, visitors can watch videos featu ring wild life
in Hyogo and obtain information about items in the museum. At the Reference Room,
visitors are invited to examine a variety of plant, animal, rock, mineral, and fossil
specimens. Visual materials dealing with environmental education are also available.
Overall, the exhibits in this museum tend not to be interactive. For example,
exhibits do not have big ideas or conceptual frames. They make little use of the objects in
the museum collection. Many exhibits are display panels filled with text-heavy labels
focusing on academic content that is dense and dry. There are many glass case exhibits,
and the messages are often didactic, but not inspiring. Few exhibits let visitors learn or
explore on their own. One ofthe reasons might be the process of the development of
these museum exhibits. This museum does not have its own exhibit development staff
and did not even have educators when the exhibits were developed in 1992. The museum
hired a private company to design the exhibits. These individuals probably did not fully
understand the mission of this museum or its communities. In this difficult process, the
messages and intentions for visitor learning may not have been carefully developed or
tested. Exhibit designing company working closely with museum education staff is one
of the keys to developing interactive exhibits.
36
III.
The Emergence of Leading Edge Museums in Japan
In museum practice, leading the way have been Japanese zoos and aquaria, which
have been changing for some years to increase visitors' enjoyment and learning.
Asahiyama Zoo has become especially popular as it focused on animal behavior, which
stimulated curiosity in visitors. This change of the way to exhibit animals was done
mostly by animal keepers. Professional educators, however, were necessarily involved in
the process.
This zoo has a clear mission, which is to provide a place for recreation, education,
conservation of animals, and research. Because of this success, other zoos started
following it, For example, Ueno Zoo, the most visited zoo in Japan, began to adopt this
same exhibit style. Ueno Zoo focused on exhibiting animals in their original natural
environment. However, visitors sometimes cannot observe the animals in this style of
exhibit because the animals often hide in the bushes or stay on top of trees. The Ueno
Zoo also has been a leader in providing live interpretation about the animals on display.
There are also successful aquaria to attract visitors' enjoyment, such as Kairyuukan.
However, the attractiveness was often seen as a management tactic simply to increase
visitor numbers, not to become a more effective educational institution. There is also a
debate among professionals at natural history museums about whether it is necessary to
have live animals to attract the public. There is also a debate over whether natural history
museums should enter the world of entertaining at all. However, it might be necessary for
museum professionals, who are often researchers or scientists, to better understand that
zoos and aquaria are also museums, which are doing leading edge work in making their
displays more educational and meaningful.
Hands-on exhibits have been adopted as an effective strategy for museum exhibit
design as successful examples in the U.S. and other countries. However, only the design
of the hands-on was adopted, but not with in depth ideas of why hands-on exhibits
provide enjoyable and effective learning. Without the educators, professionals in learning
processes, most of the exhibits seem focused on physical interaction between visitors and
exhibits. In the other words, hands-on exhibits seem to be developed as a more common
37
technique of exhibits, but not as a technique to stimulate certain learning outcomes.
Educators are necessary in the process of develo ping exhibits.
There are also other leading edge museums in Japan. The Lake Biwa Museum,
the Prefectural Museum of Shiga, carefully developed both its mission and its exhibit
styles before it opened in 1996. The museum focused on creating a visitor-centered
learning place. For example, the museum has programs in which residents of the
prefecture collect data, which is used by scientists in the museum. Exhibits are designed
in highly interactive ways with interpreters who converse with the public. This is based
on this museum's philosophy that visitors are also part of the museum. In this museum,
interpreters also get ideas from visitors to improve the exhibits. Both the museum and the
community are deeply connected by Lake Biwa, Japan's largest lake and the third oldest
lake in the world. The residents of the community have been strongly connected with the
lake both culturally and biologically. This museum has educators, researchers,
interpreters, and administrative staff, and these groups work effectively together for the
fundamental purpose of existence of the museum as the institution. This museum also
plays a role as a research institution in the scientific community on lake research, with
parallel research efforts on Lake Baikal, Lake Tanganyica, and the US Great Lakes.
Although there are many successful elements in this museum, the most important lesson
might be that this museum developed its own style of incorporating different successful
elements from different resources within the community.
As well as these elements, the Lake Biwa museum also leads professionals in the
Japanese museum field. The museum held the first workshop and symposium about
museum evaluation in Japan and produced the first major research report on museum
evaluation (Lake Biwa Museum 2000, no. 17). The museum invited professionals from
other countries as well as other Japanese museum staff. The museum did mockups in an
exhibition, and later produced a detailed research report about this exhibition (Lake Biwa
Museum 2000, no. 16)
The National Science Museum in Ueno is in the process of large-scale renovation.
This museum is a heavily academic museum with exhibits focusing almost entirely on
their collections of specimens. The specimens were previously displayed without
38
interactions with visitors. The exhibits in new building, however, have inco rporated more
interactive strategies, which might engage visitors more and stimulate their curiosity. For
example, there are interactive devices, which use PDA systems to listen to dialogues
between a National Science Museum researcher and an interviewer about the exhibition.
Visitors also can record information about the exhibits as they view them. After visitors
leave the museum, visitors can access the information of the exhibit, which stored on an
IC card through the Internet.
The styles of exhibition have also changed. For example, an exhibition, "Solving
the Mystery of the Dinosaurs," provides labels that describe scientists' views with
familiar words for the public. The exhibition, "Evolution," has an exhibit, which displays
different strategies of survival depending on species. The labels were written with
familiar words as well as drawings. These inventions are expensive, but as I observed
visitors were enjoying and spending time to read at the exhibits, it seems the exhibitions
provide effective learning environment.
There are also small-scale museums, which provide effective learning
environments for visitors. One is The Osamu Tezuka Manga Museum, which is a city
museum in Takarazuka City. Osamu Tezuka is Japan's most well known cartoonist, who
produced Atom Boy and other popular cartoons and anime . He was also a medical doctor
and once hoped to become an entomologist. His stories have strong messages of caring
for natural environments and other creatures on the earth, which relates to the goal of
environmental education. The city developed the museum to communicate Osamu
Tezuka's messages for his contemporary fans and also to the next generation. This
museum has a message and impressive displays of collections of his cartoons. Although
this museum does not focus on the academic functions of a museum, the exhibitions are
designed for visitors' enjoyment, and invite visitors to imagine they are in his stories. The
museum also contains a library with his cartoons and videos. Because the museum is not
just presenting a collection of cartoons and has a recognizable and coherent message, it is
both unique among museums in Japan and widely recognized as very effective in
engaging visitors and communicating meaningful ideas.
39
IV.
Difficulties of Interpretation in Japanese Museums and Possible Alternatives
The importance or effectiveness of interpretation in Japanese museums is now
realized by museum professionals (Onodera, 2003). Interpretation in museums had
become a focus of study in 2003, when I began to research museum interpretation in the
u.s. museums based on Tilden Freeman's Interpreting our Heritage. After developing a
beginning understanding of U.S. styles of interpretation, I attempted to research Japanese
approaches to interpretation. As I observed interpretation in museums and zoos as well as
conducted Japanese literature reviews, I found two major differences between Japanese
styles and U.S styles of interpretation.
First, Tilden Freeman developed six principles for interpretation within National
Parks (Freeman, 1977). His ideas about interpretation are not simple, but they represent a
rich and deep philosophy about American natural, cultural, and historical heritage in the
informal learning settings of national parks. Therefore, Tilden's ideas cannot be easily
"manualized," and it is difficult to reduce his ideas to simple formulas. When Tilden's
principles were adapted or imported for use in nature education in Japan, only the
principles themselves (the six introductory sentences) were circulated. Thinking behind
these ideas was not presented or discussed by professionals, and interpretive guidebooks
only listed the principles. Even if the principles were translated correctly, they are still
difficult to apply in practice because people do not understand Tilden in any depth.
Another important difference centered on cultural differences between American
and Japanese visitors to informal learning centers. Japanese are acculturated not only to
learn from a didactic style of teaching in the classroom but also to learn in this way in
museums. It is fundamental to always respect elder people, and to respectfully listen to
individuals with authority and expertise. Therefore, informal, conversational
communication between learners and interpreters does not occur as smoothly as it does in
many American settings, where visitors naturally feel they can listen to, converse with
and even challenge interpreters. As a result, interpreters in Japan tend to just provide
knowledge and information and visitors tend to respectfully listen; there is often little
interaction.
In my undergraduate study, I researched the interpretation in the Lake Biwa
40
Museum. I observed that visitors actually did not know how to respond informally with
the interpreters at that museum. I noted that the Lake Biwa M useum was developing its
own style of the interpretation, but the style was different from interpretation in the
American museums.
In this chapter, I have explained the current, changing philosophies of practice in
Japanese museums in general, and the Museum of Nature and Human Activity in
particular. There are many positive movements toward change, examples of promising
practices, and discussions are beginning to take place regarding the changing museum . It
may take time to change, however, as museums in the U.S. have been working toward
this direction for well over 30 years. There is not just one way to improve museums as
effective learning environments but multiple ways as all museums are different in each
community.
I was involved with the work in Museum of Nature and Human Activity in Hyogo
as an intern after I started learning about environmental education and interpretation. I
now focus on how to make the exhibits more effective as a learning environment. In next
chapter, I will explore some possibilities for designing exhibitions with examples of
museums in the
u.s. as case studies.
41
Chapter 4: Case Studies
In this chapter, I will describe some exhibitions and museums in the U.S., which I
visited during January and February of2005. Each museum has a different emphasi s and
serves different communities and has different applicability to Hyogo Museum. I
observed exhibitions, learned the process of developing exhibitions and saw different
roles of the museum staff through interviews at the University of Alaska's Museum of the
North, the Monterey Bay Aquarium, and the California Academy of Science. I also
observed exhibitions as effective learning environments at the Field Museum and at the
Museum of Science, Boston, particularly the "Nature Walk" exhibition at the Field
Museum and the "Natural Mystery" exhibition at the Museum of Science.
I visited the University of Alaska's Museum of the North on January 31st and
February l ", 2005. I interviewed Terry Dicky, who is the coordinator of the education
department; Wanda Chin, who is the coordinator of Exhibition & Design department;
Amy Geiger, who is the manager of Visitors Services department; and Sophie Osborn,
who is the assistant manager of the Visitors Services department. The University of
Alaska's Museum of the North is the most similar to the Hyogo Museum in size, content,
structure, and aim to attract a diverse audience. Both museums have scientific research
departments, and some staff members have joint appointments with the university. Other
departmental structures, such as education, administration, and visitor service are also
similar, although their roles and emphasis might be different.
I visited the Monterey Bay Aquarium on January 28 th • 2005 and interviewed
Jenny Ramberg and Jaci Tomulonis, who are exhibit developers/writers. The Monterey
Bay Aquarium has a clear mission on environmental education. Each exhibition supports
the mission with its own messages. The exhibitions provide visitors with experiences for
environmental education. The aquarium evolved the exhibit philosophy to reflect changes
in society and visitors' expectations. The aquarium also evaluates exhibitions; therefore,
staff members develop their new exhibitions based on feed back on effectiveness.
I visited the California Academy of Science on January 29 th and interviewed Lisa
Hubbell, who is a program evaluator; and Marco Centin, who is an exhibit designer. The
42
California Academy of Science emphasizes both scientific research and exhibition for
educational purposes. Scientists initially develop the exhibitions, and their scientific
research is presented in these exhibitions. The Hyogo Museum also aims to focus on both
scientific research and its educational role. However, there are difficulties balancing
them; therefore, the styles and the development processes of exhibitions at the California
Academy of Science is a good example for the Hyogo Museum to follow.
43
I.
University of Alaska's Museum of the North
1. Overview of the University of Alaska's Museum of the North
University of Alaska's Museum of the North is located on the University of
Alaska Fairbanks campus. Since the creation of the university in 1917, the museum was
included in its charter. In 1980, the museum was moved to this location. Its collec tion has
been expanding since 1926 and is the heart of the museum. The natural history
collections of aquatics, botany, mammals, birds, and earth sciences have a total of
253,300 specimens. Collections of cultural history include a total of 762,000 artifacts
(750,000 of which are archeological objects) within the Alaska Native Heritage Film
Center, Archeology, Ethnology, Fine Arts, and History departments.
As the museum guide describes, the museum is a place that signifies many things
to diverse audiences.
For scientists and scholars, the museum holds a treasure-trove of specimens
and artifacts that contain keys to understanding cultural and biological diversity.
For University students, it is a place to learn about Alaska's natural and cultural
history. For residents, it is a place of great pride, a storehouse that displays their
heritage with respect and preserves it for future generations. For children, the
museum is the favorite destination of school trips during which they use the
hands-on collections of genuine dinosaur bones, furs, and Native artifacts. For
tourists, it is an exceptional preservation ofAlaska's complexity.
(University ofAlaska Museum, 1996. p. 3)
The mission statement includes all the functions of the museum described as following:
to acquire, conserve, investigate, and interpret specimens and collections
relating to the natural, artistic, and cultural heritage of Alaska and the
Circumpolar North. Through education, research, and public exhibits, the
Museum serves the state, national , and international science programs. The
Museum develops and uses botanical, geological, zoological, and cultural
collections; these collections form the basis for understanding past and present
issues unique to the North and meeting the challenges ofthe future.
(University ofAlaska Museum of the North, 2005)
There are currently 18 departments including Special Projects, Alaska Center for
Documentary Film, and Communications. There departments focus on the following
fields of studies: Earth Sciences, Entomology, Ichthyology and Aquatics, Mammals,
44
Ornithology, Alaska Frozen Tissue Collection, Herbarium, Archaeology, Ethnology &
History, and Fine Arts. Some staff members of these departments are University of
Alaska Fairbank's faculty, who hold joint appointments.
The Museum of the North is the most similar to the Hyogo Museum in size,
content, structure, and aim to attract a diverse audience. Both museums have scientific
research departments. Other departments, such as Education, Administration, and Visitor
Service, are also similar although the roles and emphasizes might be different. Most of
the collections of the Hyogo Museum, however, are natural history collections, and the
emphasis on cultural collections is much less. The content of "human activities" in
Hyogo Museum tends to focus on science and technologies, not including the cultural
context. Exhibits and educational programs with cultural context have the potential to
effectively relate visitors' experiences to personal lives. Conceptual design, which
includes cultural context as an elements, as well as scientific elements in the exhibit
provide an effective learning environment for visitors. The physical designs of exhibits,
such as interactive devices including labels, are also an important factor of an effective
learning environment.
In this section, I will describe: The roles of the Education Department as an
educational institution, and in the development of exhibits; Exhibit and Design, various
elements (exhibits) as conceptual design and physical design; Blue Babe exhibits, how
the science is effectively present in this specific exhibit; and Discussion of application to
the Hyogo Museum.
2. The Roles of the Education Department
a) The roles of the education department in the museum
The mission ofthe education department is stated as below in the Museum
Education Profile (2004):
Education is one of the primary missions of the Museum, and the goal of the
Education Department is to facilitate access to information about Alaska's social
and natural phenomena. The Education Department is dedicated to providing life
long learning experiences to learners of all ages. Through the interpretation of
Alaska's natural and cultural history collections, we provide a variety of inquiry
45
based activities to engage visitors in learning about the people and places we call
home.
(University ofAlaska Museum, 2004)
The mission statements of the museum itself and of the education department are
very similar, focusing on life-long learning. The education department tries to provide a
variety of inquiry-based activities, which ask questions and stimulate visitors' curiosity.
Programs attempt to answer these questions. This inquiry based strategy, revolving
around stimulating questions is a visitor-centered technique that ideally stimulates
visitors to make discoveries, solve problems, or build a sense of wonder
Public programs include University of Alaska Museum of the North Lectures,
Saturday Family Programs, Open House, Gathering North, Junior Curators Camp,
Summer Interpretive Programs, and Family Fun Fest. For example, Summer Interpretive
Program happens 3-4 times each day during summer. It includes the Northern Inua,
Dynamic Aurora, and Explainer Talk Series. Explainer Talk Series is a 20-minute
program, starting with 5-10 minutes introduction of the topic with slides and powerpoint
shows. After the introduction, the visitor can have the opportunity to use hands-on
collections. This program can change visitors' attitudes toward the collection through
their experience to touch them . It is a free program, and most visitors are tourists who
visit Alaska during summer. Visitors are physically in Alaska where they might
experience the topics outside the museum, so this program can motivate visitors to enjoy
learning.
The Education department has two different School Tour programs, which are
designed to reach K-12 students: Docent Led Tours by docents and Tours on Your Own
by teachers. The program goals include strengthening the understanding of the northern
environment and fostering awareness of the social history of Alaska's Native and non
Native peoples. These programs provide opportunities for students to personalize their
topics of learning, more than in a classroom setting with exhibits and the hands-on
collection. The museum also has resources, such as Teacher Resource Guides, Docent
Resource Guides, Science kits, and Hands-on Collections.
46
b) The Roles in the Education Department in the Development Exhibition
In my interview with the coordinator of the education department, Terry Dickey,
he talked about the involvement of the Education department in the process of developing
exhibitions. Curators, the Exhibit team, and the Education team are all involved. A
curator, who is one of the scientists, develops an outline and a story and organizes objects
to support it, such as photos, maps, and illustrations. The objects are the specialty of the
museum: "if there is no object, it is a wrong story as an exhibit" (Dickey 2005). Scientists
have information and can tell an interesting story, but they sometimes want to tell the
story to other scientists, but not to the public who visit the museum. The story should
involve people, art, culture, and values, which are hooks, which bring people into the
objects. Without a hook, there is no connection to personal experiences.
Educators need to make sure that labels are written and placed appropriately to
maximize visitor understanding with appropriate reading level, vocabulary, and length.
Information has to be brief; if people want to have extensive information, they can go to
libraries. For example, the label of the grey whale skull is very brief and uses daily
vocabulary. The grey whale skull is a hands-on exhibit in the Western and Arctic Coast
Gallery. Although the label has the scientific name, distribution, habitat, and food, the
food was described as "shrimp-like animals." Because this particular exhibit might be
attractive for children, this way of explaining the food is essential for them to understand
the labels.
Dicky told me that organizing the information for the visitors is important as well
as presenting information about the objects. If visitors organize the information by
themselves, it might be different from what the scientists found out or the presentation of
objects. It is important to present the objects in the way the scientists organized with
educators' work to present them.
47
3. Exhibit and Design
a) Configuration of th e Museum: Wayfinding and orie ntation signs
The main exhibit area is divided into the five geographic regions of Alaska;
Southwest, Western Arctic Coast, Interior, Southcentral, and Southeast. Each exhibition
highlights the distinct natural and cultural history of these regions. Both natural and
cultural objects are displayed in a way to present the regions, but not as topics of studies,
such as geology or ecology of the areas. The exhibit area is organized into specific
cultures, and specific cultural groups, in specific regional areas. This configuration of
exhibitions makes sense to shows the relationship between the natural environment and
people's lives, specifically the culture in these regional areas.
There is a brown bear exhibit at the entrance of the gallery. The bear is 2.67
meters tall, which is impressive, inviting visitors to enter the museum. There is also a
gallery guide, which shows the configuration of the divided exhibitions with a regional
map of Alaska. Without information about the galleries, visitors might not feel as ifthere
are in a non-threatening environment. Providing the information about the configuration
of the museum helps visitors know what they are going to see in exhibitions, which they
can observe in self-paced way.
On the wall, facing to the museum's store, there is a History of Alaska exhibit
with object collections and photographs with labels. Some of the group title labels are
''The First Immigrants," "European Exploration 1741-1840," and "Territorial Days 1912
1959." Human history is general information to the visitors as part of their personal
background although other science topics might be attractive to the visitors who have
their own specific interests. Providing the human history aspect of Alaska at the
beginning can help relate to most visitors' previous knowledge.
Most of the galleries have a regional profile panel, such as Physical Geography,
Climates, Animals, and People and Economy with regional maps. Although the exhibits
themselves in each gallery can be as distinctive as different regions in Alaska, it is
important to give the overview information about specific regions. This profile can help
visitors have some background about the regions in the exhibition.
48
The museum has audio guides in English as well as Japanese for Japanese
tourists. Audio guides can be a powerful tool for interaction betw een the exhibit and
visitors. One of the reasons is that visitors use a different sense: listening. However, more
importantly, audio guides can enhance the information in the exhibits. In each exhibit, the
voices are different; therefore visitors can distinguish each exhibit in the gallery. At the
beginning of the audio in each exhibit, people are told who is talking, such as a curator,
scientist, or Native person in the region, so visitors can know what perspective of story
they are going to hear. Because there are many different topics or elements, visitors might
be confused about what the exhibit is about by moving around in the exhibition.
b) Various Elements (exhibits) of Exhibition, Western and Arctic Coast Gallery,
from the Perspectives of Conceptual Design and Physical Design
I focus on the Western and Arctic Coast Gallery as a good example of an effective
learning environment for the Hyogo Museum. In this particular exhibition, the regional
profile panel (title labels and introductory or orientation label) has the subjects "Group
Identity and Interrelationship," "Location and Divisions," "Village Life," and "Social and
Political Organization." This exhibition focuses on the cultural aspects of this region,
human life, and the natural environment. There are many exhibits, which have different
topics, in this exhibition. They are not, however, just laid out as the elements of the
region; instead they show relationships to one another. I will explain how some of the
exhibits in this exhibition show relationships one to another. I will also point out how
these exhibits provide an effective learning environment.
There is an exhibit with marine mammals, such as polar bear and seals, displayed
on the ice pack. Captions provide information about each species and their habitats with
maps, the arctic environment and their adaptation, and relationship among them; seals as
food resources of polar bears. The captions also provide information about global
warming, which affects the habitat of polar bears. However, the manner of describing the
global warming is not just emotional, such as messages of protecting the polar bear. The
captions and photographs provide information about how the scientists are studying
global warming.
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Information on captions are not limited to the objects (marine mammals), but also
include extended topics, such as their habitats and global warming. It is a good exhibit,
because visitors can learn about a broader and more abstract idea (global warming)
through their experience to observe these objects (marine mammals). The topic is an
environmental issue, which scientists analyze, and it is challenging people to recogni ze it
as a problem related to/ caused by their life style. Through connecting the issues to the
objects that visitors observe, visitors' experience can be personalized.
There are also hands-on objects in the exhibit. Visitors cannot only touch the furs
and skulls of these animals, but also artifacts, which use the fur as a material. Each
hands-on object has labels, which has an identification label on one side and detai led
information about the species or the artifacts on the other side . Ms. Wanda Chin,
coordinator of the Exhibit and Design department, explained me there is a premise that
visitors learn in different ways such as touching, hearing, and observing. As effective
learning uses different senses, this exhibit provides opportunities for visitors to learn
through multiple senses. Visitors also have opportunities to compare different shapes of
skulls, as well as comparing the stuffed animals.
In my interview with Ms. Wanda Chin, she told me that she tries to integrate a lot
of design: design by nature, such as physical skeleton as biology and design by
decoration of artifacts. She told me there was a realization of appreciation in design. For
example, there are various displays of mammals, and visitors can compare different
species through observing features of the animals. Visitors can also compare different
design of artifacts, such as clothes, which are often made out of skins of different
animals. As visitors observe different species of animals, visitors also observe the
different designs of clothes. Visitors can realize the different designs of clothes come
from different animals. There are visitors who enjoy the designs as arts, and there are
visitors who enjoy the designs of different animals. We often think these designs, by
nature and by humans are different, but integrating a lot of design in an exhibition can
make connections between these two different kinds of designs .
The glass-case display of baskets, which are artifacts, can also make this
realization for visitors, because the materials of the baskets are plants. Visitors can
observe the baskets as the artifacts objects, which the y would use in their daily lives. The
objects, which visitors use in their daily lives, can make a "hook" to attract visitors'
observations. However, visitors can also relate to the materials, where they might have
background about the plant species. The captions provide as information plants' species,
which visitors can find in this region. The baskets have "hooks" to visitors' daily lives,
and the identification in labels and captions provide the information effectively to make
the connections between the baskets and plants. This can help to the curious to observe
plants outside of the museum. In the other words the exhibition can provide visitors have
different views toward the plants.
There is a glass-case display of objects, such as parkas, boots, and snow goggles.
Visitors can connect these to their personal lives, because visitors still wear them
although the materials and shapes are different. All materials, which were used to make
the objects in the glass case, are what Eskimos found in the region. The objects can
inspire visitors' curiosity to observe what the materials are .
The case of masks shows different impressions of faces, shapes, and materials to
make the masks. Wanda told me how this display changed over time. The old display of
the masks was more beautiful or fancy as artifacts although there were more wide
varieties of mask making. Current displays provide more varieties of masks, and people
do not stereotype the masks. In this process, traditional Native American short stories
were added in captions. These stories provide in depth perspectives on masks as cultural
artifacts. Depending on how the objects are displayed with captions, objects can enhance
the messages of exhibits.
Traditional views of gender roles are explained in an exhibit through displaying
knives, which men and women used. Although gender issues are sometimes seen as
controversial, displaying different knives for different purposes also shows the traditional
gender roles. An audio guide for this exhibit enhances visitors' experiences by providing
conversations while people were working. The story was developed to extend the focus
on gender roles, but not by just showing the objects. As the exhibit provides the topic of
gender roles, the way visitors relate to their previous experience or personal lives can be
extended.
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There is an exhibit about "Dinosaurs of Alaska," which is many children's
favorite topic. Although the exhibit is not big and it does not show the total size of the
dinosaur skeletons, the topic of the dinosaurs can attract children as the first "hook." The
content ofthe exhibit focuses on scientific fmdings, which might be difficult for young
visitors, but this first "hook" can motivate them to learn more. In this gallery, which
displays other mammals' skeletons, visitors can also compare the skeletons of different
species. In other words, the visitors might not be learning only about the dinosaurs, but
expand the opportunities to see the dinosaurs as one of many animal species. The exhibit
can stimulate the curiosity to learn more about dinosaurs, but this experience can be an
experience for visitors to discover evolution, which is a broader idea to understand about
the species.
There is an exhibit, which explains the studies of the Frozen Tissue Collection
department, which explains the importance of a systematic collection. The topic is
scientific, and visitors might need a biology background to understand the exhibit. One of
the captions explains the necessity of the study for wildlife management, which is an
important issue as an environmental problem. Although it might be necessary to have
more support for visitors to understand the topic, it is important for the museum to show
science and research, how hypothesis can help to discover new things, and what is going
on in the academic field. Because the museum should serve a wide variety of visitors, it is
a necessary exhibit in the museum. Different levels of the topic are necessary for visitors
who might have advanced interests in science. As the study of biology uses different
vocabulary, the attractiveness of the exhibit is clear for that certain interest group.
Another big exhibit displays a kayak, an umiak, and hunting. Ifvisitors have ever
seen a kayak in the ocean, they immediately can relate their personal experience to this
kayak, which is displayed in the exhibit although the materials are animal skins. Captions
explain the different styles of kayak in different regions depending on local construction
techniques, behavior of the animals hunted, and sea conditions. This provides information
about the diversity of kayaks, but also expands on the diversity of the natural
environment in different regions. Video programs, such as Whale Hunting, Cutting
Whales, and Whale-Hunting story, which were recorded in 1975, are also provided in the
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exhibit. In the video programs, people hunt whales with the umiak, a large, open boat
designed to carry several people, which is displayed in the exhibit. The visitor's
experience is not just observing the object but also observing how the umiak is used. This
experience can help visitors understand the exhibit more in depth with sounds and
observing the movement in the video.
There are captions about whale hunting in the gallery: "Arctic Whaling Culture"
and "Commercial Whaling." Although these captions do not exist in the exhibit of the
kayak and umiak, these captions provide in-depth information about whale hunting,
which is an important part of the culture in the region. These labels include modem whale
hunting, which is sometime seen as a controversial issue from the conservation
perspective. By providing information describing whaling by Native people , however,
this issue seems balanced as different perspectives. Providing different perspec tives about
an issue can help people to understand the issue and develop their own opinions for the
Issue.
From the conceptual design perspective, the Western and Arctic Coast Gallery has
many different topics and elements ofthe region. These different topics and elements can
make "hooks" for a diverse audience through relating their personal lives or previous
experience in different ways. As the individual visitor has different interests and
experience, it is important to provide various "hooks." Each exhibit also provides broader
views of the topics relating the objects in the exhibit. There are also various hands-on
objects, which allow visitors to use different senses. The audio guide and video programs
also use the sense of hearing. Through providing various conceptual design and physical
design to make an effective learning environment, the exhibition can stimulate the
motivation and curiosity of visitors in different ways. For visitors who try to understand
all exhibits in the exhibition, they might feel as if it is jumping around or presenting
many disconnected topics. However, providing many topics are different approaches for
different visitors who have different interests and emphases of the topics. Ifvisitors can
get the idea about the exhibition, visitors can control their own learning.
53
4. Bison exhibit (Blue Babe---A Case Study) as an Example for Designing Scientific
Findings into an Exhibit
Bison exhibit (Blue Babe-A Case Study) in the Interior Gallery is an exhibit, where I
particularly focused on the way to present scientific findings to the public. The exhibit is
about a 36,000-year-old mummified Alaska steppe bison, which was recovered from
permafrost. The visitors can walk around the glass case to observe the object. Exhibit
labels and captions, which explains what scientists know about this bison and how they
found out, are on the wall around the exhibit. Labels and captions include the maps and
drawings and other objects to explain the facts. In this exhibit, the mummi fied bison was
nicknamed as Blue Babe, which may make it feel more familiar, to make personal
connection with the object more than just describing it as one of the objects, which
scientists study.
Most group titles labels, such as "Chronological Age" and "Biological age," have
subtitles. "Chronological Age-When did Blue Babe Die?", "Biological age-How Old
was Blue Babe at the Time of Death?", "Climatic Factors-What was the Climate like
when Blue Babe was Alive?", "Predation-Who Killed Blue Babe? to, and
"Preservation." For example, "Chronological Age" explains how scientists know it was
36,000 years old with the scientific technique of Carbon 14 Process dating with the
figures. "Predation-Who Killed Blue Babe? " explains why it appears that an American
Lion attacked and killed this bison through showing the figure of fangs. The label
suggests checking how it matches the remaining evidence, chewing marks and toothing
punctures on the bison's rump and back by themselves. When explaining the American
lion, it also provides information of the climate at the time when the bison died. As
visitors see the object in the case, the blue color ofthe bison is noticeable and makes
visitors wonder why it is. The color ofthe object is instantly the "hook" to motivate the
visitors to know the reason . "Preservation" explains "blue mineral vivianite formed on
the skin when the body reacted with the minerals in the silt during its long burial."
Although some of the science might be difficult for visitors to understand, the style
and objects provide an effective learning environment. The "hooks" are provided by the
object, which visitors are interacting with as part of their experience. The organization of
54
the exhibit, such as the way of questioning and laying out the information, can provide an
interesting science story, which attracts young visitors. The question style also motivates
visitors to find out the answer by themselves. The labels and captions also let visitors to
observe the bison in the case, pointing out where they can find the evidence. Wanda
described the way as the detective style, which also provides the parts of scientific study.
Careful observation is visitors' exploration, and it is not just receiving the information,
but doing something by themselves. Visitors can control their learning as they do
activities by themselves.
S. Discussion of Application to the Hyogo Museum
a) Visitor-Centered Exhibit
One of the challenges at the Museum of Nature and Human Activities, Hyogo
(Hyogo Museum) is how scientists (researchers) can develop a visitor-centered exhibit.
Although the lack of educators and exhibit designers in the museum are big issues,
Wanda Chin, coordinator of Exhibition and design at Museum of the North, provided one
perspective of the relationship between science and humans. In western culture, science is
sometimes seen as separate from humans. Science, however, is the way to understand
nature, which is fundamental to human life. Although the sciences as academic fields
have special vocabulary, objects of science and culture are integrated together in this
museum. Through integrating two areas together, the objects in exhibits can relate
science and daily life to each other. It is one of the ways the visitor-centered exhibits can
be developed.
Wanda told me her own experience that she had difficulties intellectually in
understanding scientific concepts as academic fields because these concepts were
separated from her real life. Her personal question, which tries to get two areas, to study
and understand together with the real world influenced exhibit design at the Museum of
the North. Her weakness of understanding scientific concepts helped to develop
educational concepts and philosophy because she can realize challenges for visitors from
different perspectives. As an exhibit designer, Wanda developed the visitor-centered
exhibits way with working together with scientists. However, without exhibit designers,
55
scientists at Museum of Nature and Human Activities, Hyogo need to work hard to
understand the visitors' perspective about science.
b) Exhibits Improvement
The exhibits in the Museum of the North are improving through changing the
objects on display and the contents and styles of labels over time . Changing the
exhibition is necessary to enhance the appearance in the correct cultural context as well
as for the purpose of preserving the collection. With limited space, new ones replace old
exhibits. In this process, museum staff need to examine which exhibits can adjust with
new ones in a timely fashion as visitors expect. Content of the exhibits as well as the style
of the exhibits can make "hooks" with visitors. For example, people started learning
about global warming issues. The museum can take advantage of this and provide
scientific information. Because visitors already have some background about the issue in
their daily lives, such as in the media, the exhibit does not need to provide all the
information. As the tendency of over time, the nature of the elaborate exhibit changed
from an informative to an inspirational exhibition over time.
However, after 20 years in its original gallery, major innovations are needed.
Therefore, the museum is building new exhibit spaces. The new gallery will specifically
regard the art and design aspect in a cross-cultural (regional) manner. The experiences
through small changes of each exhibit over the years can help design a whole new
museum space. Even the limitations of economic factors and human resource sometimes
provide successful exhibits. It is important to accumulate the experience to improve the
exhibits so that when big innovations are necessary, experience can provide clear ideas in
the process of developing exhibits.
There are difficulties to experiment with small changes in exhibits at Hyogo
Museum due to the financial and human resource limitation. However, it is very
important for a museum to be timely about the topics of exhibition in the society as well
as community. As the museum exhibits get old without timely improvement, the exhibits
as well as the museum itself might be given the cold shoulder by the public. As a result,
56
the role of museums in communities may be in doubt. Exhibits play the main role of
education in the museum, and improving exhibits is the top priority of the museum work.
c) Effective learning environment in the community as a specialty of the museum
Evaluation is also a helpful tool to develop effective learning environment.
Wanda mentioned the importance of understanding the interaction between the exhibits
and visitors. She also told me her realization through her experience of workshop about
the evaluation at the Museum of the North. People who live in the community take
visitors to the museum. The people who live in the community have their own picks of
their favorite topics based on their own experiences in the community. A museum can
represent the topics that individuals in the community want to share with their fam ilies or
friends. They can bring their personal stories with their experience to the museum, It is
necessary to consider exhibits as a part of the community.
Labels and captions are an important factor in connecting visitors and exhibits.
Wanda who is experienced exhibit designer at the Museum of the North told me her
opinions about labels, which is important for the Hyogo Museum. She tries to put
minimal information on the labels, although some captions have long stories. Full
narrative stories compete with the object and space. Therefore, ifpeople want to read the
full stories, they can purchase the book, because the museum is the place for objects, and
does not focus on the information.
The current labels and captions at Hyogo Museum are in textbook style: full
narrative stories with a lot of information and difficult vocabulary. This style attracts only
visitors who have special interests. If visitors want specific information, they can get
them in libraries or special seminars by the scientists. The exhibits, however, are the
learning environments for various visitors, and exhibits should be presented for a diverse
audience that might not have special interests. Providing a "hook" with visitors' daily
lives with everyday words can help attract diverse visitors. Currently, most objects in the
exhibits are replicas or georama, and they do not present the specialty of museum, the
collections of real objects, as one of their functions . The Hyogo Museum can more focus
on the specialty of the museum through exhibiting the real objects.
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II. Monterey Bay Aquarium
In 1977, four marine biologists at Stanford University's Hopkins Marine Station
in Pacific Grove proposed an aquarium devoted to Monterey Bay. As well as the marine
scientists, local residents soon formed the non-profit organization, Monterey Bay
Aquarium Foundation, to pursue the project. The aquarium stands at the historic site ofa
cannery. The people in the community engaged with projects from the beginning. One of
the reasons might be because Monterey Bay itself is an important part of the comm unity
as its physical environment.
Since opening the aquarium to public in 1984, the exhibit has been a unique
showcase of regional marine communities. Instead of focusing on specific species in
different regions, the aquarium developed the approach that focused on the immediate
environment, Monterey Bay. The hope of founders was to expose people to the diversity
of life in the Bay. Therefore, the message of the aquarium would be about Monterey Bay,
its habitats, communities, and marine life. This unique approach of exhibition was
supported and developed by the aquarium's mission: ''The aquarium has always been
mission-driven, message-driven and visitors-driven" (Ramberg, Rand, and Tomulon,
2003) .
"By the mid 1990s, it was clear to scientists everywhere that the world's oceans
were in greater jeopardy than we would know" (Ramberg et aI, 2003). As the world
changed, in 1997, the mission statement was changed from ''The mission of the Monterey
Bay Aquarium is to stimulate interest, increase knowledge and promote stewardship of
the world's ocean environment through innovative exhibits, public education and
scientific research" to "the mission of the Monterey Bay Aquarium is to inspire
conservation ofthe oceans." Both mission statements relate to the goal of environmental
education. Although the goal of conserving the oceans is broad, the statement specifies
the role of this institution, aiming at what this aquarium does. The aquarium is conscious
about their existence in the society.
As the aquarium tries to develop visitor-driven exhibitions, so it is important that
the aquarium know about its visitors. The aquarium conducts evaluations of exhibitions
58
that provide information on who visitors are, and how the exhibitions provide a learning
experience. Summative evaluations can especially improve the future development of
other exhibitions through providing feedback.
For the purpose of knowing how the mission and message are reflected in the
exhibition, I will explain the process of developing exhibitions at the aquarium with its
evolving philosophy. I also would like to point out how the mission and messages are
communicated with visitors in exhibitions. I will emphasize how the exhibitions provide
"visitor-centered" effective learning environments.
1. Process of Developing Exhibitions with its Evolving Philosophy
Philosophical discussions are often separated from actual applications in
developing exhibitions. An article, Mission, Message, and Visitors : How Exhibit
Philosophy Has Evolved at the Monterey Bay Aquarium by Jenny Ramberg, Judy Rand,
and Jaci Tomulonis (2003), who have experience working at the aquarium, explained the
changes of exhibit philosophy over time. The exhibit philosophy reflected the concept
about conservation and the role of the aquarium in the society.
a) What Exhibits Can Do and Different Ways to Send Messages
The visitors' ''take away message" is "conservation of ocean," which is a big idea.
The aquarium has been working to focus and to define what "conservation" means. The
mission contains and can become many different messages. In the process of developing
exhibitions, discussion about what exhibitions can do to save the ocean is necessary. The
three kinds of things exhibitions can do are inspire, engage, and empower (Ramberg and
Tomulonis, 2005). The exhibit designers develop exhibitions based on the questions:
"What is the way to inspire visitors?"
"What kind of experience visitors to find out about animals?"
"What kinds of exhibits to empower visitors to take action?"
Inspiring, engaging, and empowering are different ways to send environmental
messages and to deliver the mission of the aquarium to inspire conservation of the
59
oceans. In my interview with the exhibit developers, Tomulonis and Ramberg told me
that there is recognition over the last decade that "being negative is not necessarily
working in terms of helping people feel that they should be taking care of environmental
problems." It is necessary that people feel a connection with nature in positive ways.
Because there is no one particular way to connect people and nature, the aquarium
provides different ways to send messages to different people.
Tomulonis and Ramberg told me about development of stewardship with nature
using the reference, Beyond Ecophobia (Sobel, 1996) and Chawla Louise's research.
According to Beyond Ecophobia, before children learn that environment is being
destroyed, they need to feel a connection with nature in a positive way. According to
Chawla (1998, 1999), environmentalists, people who actively participate in
environmental issues as adults, tend to have spent time in nature in their childhood and
they share nature with others as adults. Providing positive experiences with nature and
helping children to spend time in nature is necessary for conservation of the oceans. The
exhibition Splash Zone: Rock and ReefHomes, was developed for children and their
families to provide opportunities "to explore the ocean world in the hope that those
experiences will inspire a caring relationship with the ocean." (Ramberg et.al., 2003, p.
316) On the other hands, the exhibition Jellies: Living Art provides opportunities to enjoy
the arts. There are different ways to inspire visitors.
The aquarium tries shifting from "you are the problem" to "you are the solution"
to provide positive experiences for visitors. It is necessary that people feel connections
with nature, so that they realize they are a part of nature and responsible for it. To make
people realize that they are a part of nature, as one oftheir approaches, humans in the
picture and video are displayed in the exhibition to help people to show people in nature.
b) Evaluation
The aquarium conducts evaluations, which can provide feedback on how visitors
learned from the exhibition. The evaluations help improve the particular exhibition but
give clear ideas for future exhibitions as well as experiments to seek ways that
exhibitions can promote ocean conservation. For example, Jellies: Living Art, which was
60
developed in 2002, reflected the front-end evaluation that showed 35% of people want to
see jellyfish with no information. However, information from scientific literature was
included in conservation messages. However, in the summative evaluation of this
exhibition showed that conservation messages lasted as their learning after visitation. It
proved there is not one way to deliver conservation messages (Tomulonis, 2005).
Evaluations also helped people to understand better exhibit planning, whic h can
help to shape the philosophy. As four Ph. D. scientists first conceived aquarium, it was
not an easy process to make the exhibitions visitor-centered. A staff, designer and writer,
worked to convince the scientists that they were not should not be writing scientific
papers, but it took many years for approve group members grow to understand that they
are writing for visitors, not for themselves. To help them to understand, evaluations have
occurred. It is important for the staff to understand its visitors-
how much people can
actually observe when they are walking through, and why they are going to the exhibit in
the first place, etc.-staff realize that is not necessary to be educated (although it is part
of it) because people come to the aquarium with social groups and for social reasons. For
example, Planet ofthe Jellies, which opened in 1993, was a beautiful exhibition, and staff
did what they thought they should do: provide a lot of information. However, the
evaluation showed that people did not read the information.
c) Process of the Developing Exhibitions
The staff involved with the development of new exhibition are different every
time, the figure shows the different roles ofthe each staff members. The core team is
responsible for the project from beginning to all the way through at the end, and ensuring
the exhibition is successful when it opens. The core team has the responsibility to make
sure that the project is gets done on time and within budget. The staff of the extended
team represents every other department ofthe aquarium. Some departments work closely
with the core team. Exhibit developers work with scientists, who are in the sister research
institution. For example, Tomulonis, exhibit designer/writer in core team, worked with
12-15 scientists for the development of Jellies : Living Art. It explains why the core team
is the center of the exhibit development process.
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Although scientists' views and findings are reflected in the exhibition, exhibit
developers are specialized educators who s design informal-learning centers by
developing content, story line, and interactives. Husbandry is another member of the core
team, and they know about animals and exhibitions. The production manager and
sometimes the proj ect manager work with details of delivering the project, such as
schedule and budget. Many staff are involved with the process of the exhibit
development.
Front End
Outside Scientists
_------------ Contract Documentation
Writer
Video and Film Production
Evaluator
Approval Group
Director and fewer staff
Extended Team
•
•
•
•
•
Core Team
Exhibit
Developer
•
• Exhibit Designer
• Husbandry
Production Manager
0
0
Project Manager
(Schedule and Budget)
Interactive Engineer
Photo Researcher
Graphic Designer
Education
Marketing
Facilities
Public Relations
Visitor Programs
Figure 3. Roles of Each Staff Members for Exhibit Design Process
The exhibitions were practically developed based on the mission and message in a
visitor-centered way. According to the article Mission, Message, and Visitors, "[E]ach
time exhibit developers start a project, we ask: ' Why do we want to do this exhibition?'
(mission), 'What do we want to communicate?' (message), 'Who are we doing this for?'
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(visitors) before tackling the fourth question, 'How are we going to do it?' (strategy).
Backward design can provide an effective learning experience (Wig gins & McTighe,
2001). Design processes "start with the end-the desired results (goals or standard}-and
then derives the curriculum from the evidence of learning (performance) called for by the
standard and the teaching needed to equip students to perform." The exhibition is not
curriculum, but a free choice learning center. However, starting with identifying desired
results, and determining acceptable evidence, then planning the learning experience and
instruction is parallel to the development process in the aquarium.
2. Different Ways of Communication of Mission and Messages in Exhibitions
The mission of the aquarium is "to inspire conservation of the oceans." All
exhibitions in the aquarium support this mission. However, each exhibition has a
different atmosphere with particular messages and topics. Ways to inspire, engage, and
empower are different in different exhibitions. The combination of different exhibitions
with different ways of presenting throughout the aquarium gives the information to
different people as well as different exhibits within an exhibition. I focus on three
exhibitions: Jellies: Living Art, Sharks: Myth and Mystery, and Vanishing Wildlife:
Saving Tunas. Turtles, and Sharks to see various ways to send messages.
Jellies: Living Art is an exhibition that inspires visitors with the amazing ways
people express their passion for the ocean. The exhibition "provides an affective
experience: a mood of wonder and exhilaration" (Ramberg et.al., 2003, p.317). Jellyfish
species are displayed, and these creatures directly show their beauties as well as their
behavior. Panels provide scientific information, such as their life cycles, feeding
strategies, their stings, and the role in the ocean all with non-scientific vocabulary that are
familiar to visitors. Arts, such as glasswork by Dale Chihuly, are also displayed in the
exhibition. The arts are inspired by the jellyfish and beauty of ocean life. For example,
Ernst Haecke1's lithographs show the beautiful symmetrical designs ofjellyfish. These
artwork inspire appreciation for the natural world.
The design of the exhibition does not differentiate arts or nature's shape as
beauty, which visitors appreciate. Various types of objects, such as live jellyfish and arts,
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are displayed in various ways. For example, the life cycle ofj ellyfish is displayed as a
moving picture-story device inside of a glass-case with velvet curtains. Scientific
illustrations were also displayed on the glass case as a combination of science and art.
Sharks: Myth and Mystery is an exhibition, which provides different cultural
views about sharks. The exhibit design was divided into six regional areas (Pacific
Islands, Amazon, Pacific Northwest, Australia, Africa, and Central America), and into an
exhibit about Western Myths. Although there are live sharks in the exhibition, the
exhibition was designed to present different cultures through interaction with sharks.
Visitors can experience the stories, music, dances and art of different cultures. The
pictures in the exhibition contain the people in the regions: therefore, visitors might
realize that the relation between sharks and human. Exhibit of Western Myths shows the
movie "Jaws" to "hook" visitors' attentions.
Through explaining how people in different regions have been interacting with
sharks, the exhibition also sends information on environmental issues. For example, the
panels on protecting habitats for sharks in Hawaii and on protesting oil drilling in the
Pacific Northwest provide visitors with information about the necessity for conservation
of sharks. The Western Myths exhibit provides different perspectives about sharks in
western culture. The exhibition inspires connections between humans and sharks.
Vanishing Wildlife: Saving Tunas, Turtles. and Sharks is a conservation
exhibition, which delivers a "conservation action message" for visitors to adopt the action
in their daily lives. A display features live giant tunes, sea turtles, sharks, and other open
ocean fishes. Interactive panels and videos graphically portray how our growing demand
for seafood, combined with destructive fishing practices, and threaten these animals'
survival in the wild: "These experiences were designed to surprise, raise concern, and
even incite anger" (Ramberg et.al ., 2003, p. 314) However, the exhibition also provides
positive movement, such as new fishing strategies.
Although feeling anger is not an enjoyable experience, front-end and formative
evaluation shows that visitors "felt the images were appropriate and necessary for
conveying the problems. The images inspired them to want to do something about the
problem" (Ramberg et.al., 2003, p. 314). Toward the end, the exhibition provides
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messages on direct conservation actions, showing how they can take action in their
everyday lives. The information includes how visitors can make better choices about
what they consume and about conservation organizations that visitors can join and
support. There are also handouts, which provide information for visitors to take home.
Although each exhibition has specific messages and uses different strategies to
send the messages, all messages are related to the mission of the aquarium, "to inspire
conservation of the oceans." As well as relating the mission of the aquarium to the
environmental education goals, this configuration of the exhibition supports the
"Ascending Staircase of Environmental Education outcome" (Chapter 1). Responsible
Environmental Behavior (REB) is developed by the individuals' learning of awareness,
knowledge, skills, attitude, and understanding through their experiences. Altho ugh in my
interview, Tomulonis and Ramberg told me that the exhibitions are doing a good job of
inspiring and engaging, but the exhibition itself might not be a best way to empower.
The location of the aquarium on the shore of Monterey Bay, the design of the
architecture, and openness to the ocean, all immediately give visitors a sense of where
they are. With providing visitors a fundamental sense of where they are, the configuration
of the exhibition can provide effective learning for environmental education. Of course,
visitors come to the aquarium with different expectations and can choose which
exhibitions they want to see by themselves as an informal learning center. Providing
choices for visitors, however, can uplift visitors' REB. The relation or connection to the
mission of the aquarium can enhance visitor experiences.
a) "Visitor-Centered" Effective Learning Environment
One dimension of effective learning is that it relates to and builds on learners'
previous experiences or personal lives. Through conducting evaluations, the aquarium
has clear ideas about "what visitors know" from previous experiences or personal lives.
Therefore, many "hooks" are provided in many different ways in the exhibitions. The
messages in exhibitions that I described above related to people's lives in different ways.
Vanishing Wildlife: Saving Tunas, Turtles, and Sharks displays seafood on the table,
which people have seen in their daily lives. At the Sharks: Myth and Mystery exhibition,
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myth and mystery, which are developed by humans, are displ ayed. For example, in the
Western Myth exhibit, shark stories in media and drawing are displayed. As well as the
messages of the exhibitions, the labels also provide words that visitors use in their daily
lives.
Providing learning with doing (Exploration}-doing something by themselves is
also important for effective learning. The Sharks: Myth and Mystery exhibition
encourages visitors to dance and to listen the stories and music. There are also rooms for
families to do activities related to sharks. As well as observing real sharks in the tanks,
there are varieties ofthings to observe in the exhibition. Observing the live animals is not
just receiving information, but visitors explore their behavior first hand. Vanishing
Wildlife provides some flip boards, which have questions on the boards. Visitors flip the
top to find the answers to the questions. The Jellies: Living Art exhibition provides
opportunities for visitors to explore how the artifacts are inspired by ocean. It might be a
different way to enjoy art.
Live animals themselve have power to attract visitors and to stimulate the
motivation and curiosity to observe them. Live animals can be "hooks" that visitors start
observing, but the design of the exhibitions provides different perspectives about the
animals. Providing brief information about species or related issues with animals can help
visitors connect their experiences and gain knowledge. Through observing the animals,
visitors might feel affection for the species. However, without the information on
conservation of the species as well as ocean itself, visitors' actions might be biased as
animal rights, but not on broader issues of environmental problems. Motivating visitors to
gain knowledge can help move up the ascending staircase of environmental education
outcomes. Flip boards can gain extrinsic motivation to find answers to questions.
The titles of each exhibition at the entrance provide a clear idea of what the
exhibition is about. Visitors can choose which exhibition they want to observe. As well as
the titles, the atmosphere of each exhibition is distinctive, and it is clear what they do
within the exhibitions. Visitors can control their experiences in aquarium by themselves.
Different choices for different visitors are provided. For example, visitors can observe
live animals, read the information panels, do activities, such as dancing or drawing, and
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enjoy the arts. Exhibitions allow visitors to do what they are interested in a self-paced
way.
3. Application for Hyogo Museum
a) Mission, Message, and Visitors
The aquarium has clear ideas about its mission, message, and visitors. Exhibitions
are approached and designed as products of these clear ideas. As well as having a clear
mission and messages for visitors, exhibits reflect both the mission and the messages. are
reflected in exhibition. Understanding mission, message, visitors, and how they are
reflected in exhibition is helpful for the Hyogo Museum to improve its exhi bitions.
The Hyogo Museum does not have an official mission statement, although it
seems that there is a consensus among the staff. The consensus is that "the purpose of this
museum is to help Prefecture Hyogo residents and other people appreciate the beauty and
dignity of the natural environment around us." Other discussions, however, focusing on
becoming a "Consortism Museum," and it seems that "sustainable society" might be new
mission. In either case, it is necessary to have official mission so that the museum can
develop exhibitions based on the mission.
In the process of developing its mission, staff must work to understand the people
in the Prefecture and a broader view about society. Although it is important to have
discussions that relate to the structural management as a Prefectural museum and as a part
of the university, reflecting and understanding the people is also important. Conducting
evaluation is essential, as is increasing the time that staff spend at the exhibition.
Educational programs can help the staff to sense the visitors, but it is necessary that staff
spend time to observe the interaction between visitors and exhibitions.
As the museum develops its mission, it is necessary that the museum focus and
define the mission. Especially if the idea of mission is broad, it is necessary to focus and
define what the museum can do. It is also necessary to let people know how they can
make a difference for the big ideas with specific message in the exhibition. Without the
mission statement, it will be difficult to develop the messages in the exhibitions. To
provide effective learning, it is necessary to have "goals" for exhibitions in order to
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develop them. It seems there is a tendency for exhibitions to be developed depending on
what is in the collection, not starting from the message "goal for visitors' learning."
Although it is difficult to develop the exhibitions aiming at a broad idea, it is
necessary that the museum provide a positive, hopeful way that people can make a
difference. The view of only the science or technology might discourage people from
participating their own action. Exhibitions that do not reflect the public are not enj oyable
for a broad range of visitors and it discourages them. Providing only facts on what to do
inhibit the processes of how people move up to REB.
Tomulonis and Ramberg told me that it took a long time before scienti sts and the
administration understood that they develop exhibitions for people, not for themselves.
Developers convinced them with evaluation. Although it might take a long time without
museum developers and evaluation practice, it is important that museums move
understand that the museum must go to public as well as visitors come to museum.
b) The Exhibit Development Process and the Role of the Staff
As the museum does not have exhibit developers within the institution, it is
difficult to develop exhibitions as the Monterey Bay Aquarium does. Rather than depend
on outside developers, it might be necessary that at least some museum staff focus on the
process while they develop the exhibition. It seems almost impossible that staff could
also work as a researcher or administrator when they engage the development process. It
might also be necessary that the educators and floor staff engage the process, because
they have experience of communicating with people.
At the same time, the educators need to understand that the exhibit is not a formal
learning center but an informal learning center. On the other hand, although floor staff
communicate at exhibitions, they are not educators who are professionals of pedagogy. It
is necessary they engage the process as all professionals work together. Evaluation can
help know what visitors learn at exhibits as well as understand visitors' expectations,
which can be used to improve the exhibition.
I emphasized how the exhibition provides a "visitor-centered" effective learning
environment at the aquarium. However, as I understand the importance of clear mission
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and relating messages to it, focusing on physical design of the exhibition is not as useful
as understanding the process. Japanese museums have a tendency to focus on schematic
exhibit designs and devices, such as interactives and audio- visuals. These features,
however, are costly to develop and hard to improve through small changes in exhibitions.
It might be detrimental to focus on physical designs of exhibits without understanding the
concepts.
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III. California Academy of Science
1. Overview of The California Academy of Science
The California Academy of Science was founded in 1853 to survey and study the
vast resources of California and beyond, as the first scientific institution in the West. The
institution opened the museum in 1874. In its long history, the museum changed locations
several times; it moved to Golden Gate Park in 1916. However, the museum is
temporarily located in downtown San Francisco for the alteration of the muse um at the
site. Natural History Exhibits, Steinhard Aquarium, and Morrison Planetarium are open
to the public as well as educational programs at the institution. In this section, I will focus
on the Natural History Exhibits.
The mission of the institution is " [T]o explore and explain the natural world ."
Although it is a short statement, it clearly shows the roles of the institution. The
California Academy of Science has all the functions of a museum; collection, study, and
education. There is a statement that says, "The California Academy of Sciences is
devoted to the study, display, and interpretation of scientific collections, which inspire
people of all ages to explore the rich variety of life on Earth" (California Academy of
Science, May. 2005).
The collections, "provide essential tools for comparative studies in biodiversity, and
are ranked among the world's largest." There are eight scientific research departments in
the fields of anthropology, aquatic biology, botany, entomology, herpetology,
ichthyology, invertebrate zoology & geology, and ornithology & marnmalogy. The
scientists "discover, collect and study invaluable specimens of animals, plants, minerals
and anthropological artifacts from around the world" (California Academy of Science,
May. 2005). As a scientific institution, although it seems very like an academically
oriented museum, it does not limit the uses of the collections to scientists. The exhibits in
the museum do not separate the educational role from their scientific roles. As an
institution, these different functions are all connected and presented in the exhibit. It was
stated: "Educational exhibits and events bring the message of Academy research to the
public with the goal of inspiring concern over our natural envi ronm ent. Special exhibits
and public programs provide unique opportunities to discover information ranging from
the evolution of life on Earth to endangered species, human cultures and planetary
exploration." The actual exhibits in the museum show successful examples as the
statements explain their aims.
2. Exhibit Design
a) The Role of Scientists in the Process of Exhibition Development
The exhibit design department develops the educational roles of the exhibit,
which provide engaging experience that support the Academy's mission. Although it is
sometimes difficult to support the main message in each exhibit, the topics come from
academic research: exhibits are designed around the research interests. After the museum
will be in the new building, it tries to stretch the research aspect more into exhibit design.
Although the exhibits seem to succeed in presenting academic research, there
were previously difficulties in the process of integrating research aspects into exhibit
design (Centin and Hubbell, Jan. 2005). Understanding how they had difficulties, and
how they started changing can be helpful for the Hyogo Museum's challenge.
Direct involvement of scientists in the development process started several years
ago in exhibit "Expedition to Madagascar." The museum started planning the exhibit as a
computer kiosk before scientists went on the expedition, and three photographers were
sent with the scientists. Scientists were engaged in the process of developing the content
of the exhibit. The scientists were excited to engage the process of developing the
exhibits because it tied with their work. When they are involved with exhibit design,
scientists are more excited about getting their research to the public.
Previously, scientist felt exhibit design took time away of from their research.
They were less eager to participate in planning exhibit when they did not feel they got
any credit for it. They published articles in scientific journals but did not communicate
with the public. It also required the Administration to value the time researchers spent
working on exhibit. Newer, younger curators who are interested in communicating with
the public also influenced this change in direction.
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b) Exhibition Development Pr ocess
I will now summarize how a full team functionally works together to develop an
exhibition in this museum. I described the process of exhibit development from the
literature in chapter two of this paper. How the practical process is applied in an exhibit,
however, is important for Hyogo Museum to know for their own processes.
The teams start with five possible titles, an overall concept, possible approac hes
as well as a main message, and several supporting messages. Although main message,
"big idea" is defined, the title is not concrete. This is important to point out, because the
message gives the direction of the project, but titles are broader. Supporting messages
provide more detailed directions for the projects.
Ideas for exhibit topics are generated from multiple sources.
Solicitation/collection of ideas come from: Academy curators and staff through open
meetings and informal networking; trustee and fellows through meeting agenda items and
open door meeting; museum visitors and members through survey by evaluators; and
proposals from outside entities. Ideas for exhibit topics are also based on strategic
analysis of the needs of the Academy and its public.
In informal review, exhibition ideas are evaluated for compatibilities, such as fit
with Academy mission, potential to appeal for visitors, fit with overall exhibition mix,
and potential for funding. Research department researchers and program evaluators
prepare a front-end report to identify key subject areas and establish the basic content
framework. Front-end evaluations "identify strength of audience interest (by segment)
levels of knowledge and awareness, understanding of concepts and naive notions and
recommended areas of emphasis and possible approaches to address audience interests."
The core team and resource team work together to produce concept designs . They
include front-end evaluation, preliminary exhibition outline, preliminary diagrams,
conceptual drawings, design approaches, and preliminary schedules. The preliminary
exhibition outline is considered with main and supporting messages, content outlines,
identification of critical exhibit elements, (such as interactives, artifacts, and audio
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visuals), and exhibit learning and outcome goals related to the California State science
(curriculum) framework.
The core team also produce schematic designs. Schematic design includes: exhibit
components (such as interactives, multimedia and AV); objects and specimens; floor
plan; elevations; models; initial copy draft, such as titles and sub theme identifiers and
label descriptions. Information about budgets, revised schedules, facility report, and a
formative evaluation are also elements ofthe schematic design.
As a project reaches the stage of design development, all detailed elem ents are in
deliverables. The final exhibit list describes every component, label, artifact, specimen,
piece of equipment, graphic, and furniture. The list also includes the final cop y and title
of the exhibition. The final design package includes floor plans, elevations, production
drawings, detailed drawings, multimedia storyboards, and graphics. In this stage of the
process, the preliminary production/fabrication plan, preliminary maintenance plan, and
preliminary operating plan are established as well as the educational programming plan
and marketing plan.
Finally, fabrication and construction starts with final dimensioned construction
drawings. The construction administration oversees all bids and contracts and, when
contacts are final, produces a Master Project Schedule and Budget. Before the exhibition
opens to the public, the teams work for evaluation and remediation. The project does not
finish as the exhibition opens to the public, but evaluation and remediation continues as a
project. The maintenance plan is revised, and the build plan continues to changes during
production, installation, and remediation.
This museum has its own program evaluators. According to Lisa Hubbell,
whether the museum conducts an evaluation depends on the exhibit. If there is enough
time, they do formative and front-end evaluations. In general, front-end and formative
evaluations are the best investment of time because they are fed quickly into immediate
decisions. They also have much more impact on how the people working on the exhibits
envision what they are creating for visitors. Especially, the teams directly involved with
the formative evaluation as team members were collecting the data evaluators coach how
they do the process.
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However, they do not always do a summative evaluation unless there is
something that they think they will learn to apply to another exhibit. It is much harder to
do summative evaluations because there is no immediate application for it, and it takes
time to work on actual analysis. The evaluator also does behavioral mapping of the whole
museum, walking through every 15 minutes to see where people are stopping, writing
down how many adults and kids are present, and if they are reading, touching, or
interacting with the exhibits, or interacting with staff members.
3. "Ants: Hidden World Revealed" Exhibition
I will focus on "Ants: Hidden World Revealed" to explore the development
process of an exhibit, such as scientists' roles, as well as observing how the exhibi tion
was designed as an effective learning environment. Six colonies of live ants are displayed
in which visitors can observe distinctive nest building and food collecting behavior. One
of the species is the Argentine ant, which is invasive to California. There are also other
exhibits, such as "Conservation Biology in Madagascar," "Ant anatomy," and species
that relate to ants, such as "Ant eater" and "Ant Plants." Visitors can also participate in
the "Bay Area Ants Survey."
a) Development Process
Brian Fisher, an entomologist, is deeply involved in the process of developing this
exhibition. This particular exhibition was developed as an experimental case, a fast
project, which took a small team less than one year. The team members are the team
designer, director of the exhibition who developed content, researcher, and external
graphic designer. However, after physical development, the staff in the education
department committed to developing survey program and a model class project as well as
exhibit evaluators to improve the exhibition.
With an evaluator's guidance, the team conducted a formative evaluation to know
some of the things to use in the exhibit to address questions people have. They set up
cards that have some of objects and asked people to carry a tape recorder and talk about
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their impressions and any questions they had as they walked up and look ed up to the
every card. The team used the information to decide how much interpretation to put with
those objects. Everything they learned from watching and listening to the visitors went
straight back into the decisions they were making.
The idea of the topic "ants" came from field research by Brian Fisher, who has
been researching in Madagascar and found new ant species on his expedition. Alth ough
there are exhibits about his research, the exhibition is not about his research or findings,
but about ants. The exhibition also provides opportunities for visitors to experience,
observe, and learn about ants, which the scientists are excited about. The exhibition was
designed to show how the entomologist is excited about ants. The San Francisco
Chronicle had coverage of Brian Fisher's discovery in May 26,2003, as we ll as coverage
of his exhibition (April and October 2004) . Although I cannot assume that sharing their
studies with the public can be incentives for scientists to be involved with the exhibit
designing process, it is important for the institution to share findings with public.
b) Exhibition as Effective Learning Environment
The first things the visitors see at the entrance of the exhibition are large pictures
of ants. These pictures are large printed color pictures and electronic microscope pictures.
These pictures can show detailed body structures of ants, which visitors usually do not
see when they observe the ants in their daily lives. Although ants are familiar species in
the area, these pictures can stimulate their curiosity as well as motivating visitors to learn
more details. Short captions provided for each picture explain interesting features, such
body structures and behaviors. The words on the caption are also familiar words, not
scientific vocabulary. This introduction part of the exhibition is a "hook" to visitors.
The exhibition space is separated into several sections by fabrics with pictures,
but not rounded by fixed walls. Therefore, visitors can sense the size of the space. Each
section has a different kind of atmosphere with devices, such as hands-on stations,
computer stations and display cases. It is obvious how to use the devices; therefore
visitors can know what they should do at the exhibition. Visitors can choose what they
want to observe or to do in the exhibition at their own pace. The display cases of ants'
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colonies can invite younger visitors to observe them with cushions on the floor and
magnifying glasses, which are attached to the case. There are also microscopes on a
station in different section, which invites visitors to observe specific body features of
ants. The exhibition provides choices for different visitors. Different visitors can do
different things at the exhibition. The exhibition provide a learner-centered environment.
As well as the configuration of the exhibition, the labels in the exhibition do a
very good job at the interpretive approach. Beverly Serrell describes in Exhibit Labels,
"Interpretive labels address visitors' unspoken concerns: What's in it for me? Why
should I care? How will knowing this improve my life"( Serrell, 1996, p. 9). She also
described that "interpretive labels speak to visitors in an appealing voice-not preachy or
pedantic, but not simplistic or condescending." I observed examples of good labels as
Beverly Serrell described in her book: "starting with information directly related to what
visitors can see, feel, do, smell, or experience from where they are standing," "using short
paragraphs and small chunks, not large blocks of information," and "setting up a
conversation." The vocabularies are not scientific words, and it seemed like visitors want
to read the labels. I observed that parents read labels for children without interpreting the
information for them. The vocabulary and writings on the labels are visitor-friendly, so
visitors do not need to process the information to understand as they read. The experience
of reading activity smoothly becomes part of their learning process.
The information on labels are well organized to present the topics or objects. Each
exhibit of the exhibition has captions, which also has texts with a heading of information
as well as objects, images (photos and movies), and illustrations and graphics (diagrams
and maps). Without reading all of the information on the labels, visitors can know what
this information is about. Therefore, visitors can skip the detailed information if it does
not seem interesting to them. Again, it helps visitors to control what they do in the
exhibition.
At the display case of the ant colonies, visitors can explore the behaviors of ants
by themselves as well as getting information from the panels. Visitors also look through
the microscope, and hands-on devices, which allow them to put together ant body
structure. The visitors are not just receiving the information, but they are exploring. There
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are also video programs, where visitors watch scientists collecting ants in their field
research.
An exhibit highlighting social structure of ants can relate ants' society to the
visitors' lives in human society: "At the Harvest ant display, visitors will be able to
discern the detailed division of labor within colony" (California Academy of Science.
2005). Army ants have different appearances and diets depending on their roles, such as
army, worker, and queens in the colony. One caption explains their migration pattern as
"Army Ants Are Nomadic." Visitors can reflect the images of ants' migration related to
human society. Presenting their interesting social structure to be a "hook" for the
visitors.
Argentine ants are an invasive species in California. The ants are displayed with
kitchen accessories, which visitors can directly relate to their lives. However, the
information in this exhibit is presented as scientific findings. The labels provide
information about what scientists found out and how they know, explained with words
familiar to the public. The information includes why this species could affect and
dominate native species. The topic of invasive species is one of the environmental issues.
Through exhibiting live ants as objects of invasive species, which visitors observe around
their house without knowing the species, visitors can recognize the problem in their lives.
The label also provides information about this ant, which visitors might find
inside their homes, with the heading "Safe Ways to Deal with Unwelcome Ants." The
information includes avoiding the use of pesticides: "Pesticides are not good ant
deterrents and some of these chemicals eventually end up in the San Francisco Bay
ecosystem." The captions then offers several ways that visitors can try to deal with them.
As the captions include "San Francisco Bay ecosystem," visitors might realize their
individual action (use of pesticides) can influence the broader world. The learning in the
exhibition can make a difference in their daily lives .
There are other panels, which explain ants as parts of an ecological system. The
titles of the panels use familiar words, such as "Ant plant" and "Ant eater." Although
there are not many objects, the information on the panels provides a broader view or
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different perspective about ants, which might attrac t visit ors who might have different
interests, but not particularly ants.
A section of the exhibition "Conservation Biology in Madagascar" is based on
entomologist Brian Fisher's fieldwork. Video programs show his research in Madagascar
as well as the importance of conserving biodiversity and the life style of the people in the
region. Brian sends the message to visitors in the program, not just showing and
explaining his work. Conservation of biodiversity is also an important environmental
issue, but people usually cannot feel the problem in their daily lives. The idea of
biodiversity does not connect to visitors' personal lives. However, showing the scientist's
face on the panel as he talks on the video program at the site of field research can help
visitors to connect to this idea.
There is an educational program that invites visitors to participate in the research
by surveying ants. If visitors are interested in participating in this program, they learn
how to collect ants and get collection kits from the staff at the naturalist center. This
survey helps to discover and map the distribution of our remaining native ant populations
and the spread of the Argentine ant. The exhibition can open visitors' eyes toward ants;
the experience of learning interesting features of ants can provide curiosity and
motivation to observe the ants around their home. Providing the opportunity to participate
in survey research put visitors' experiences on a firm basis, because they do activities by
themselves outside of the museum.
4. Discussion of Application to the Hyogo Museum
The Hyogo Museum also aims to integrate function, collection, study, and
education, as a museum in the society. There are many difficulties for the Hyogo
Museum to apply the methods of the California Academy of Sciences for producing
displays and interpretations of scientific collections. Although the management structure
such is different, as absence of educators and exhibit designers, learning the process of
developing exhibits and observing how scientific findings are presented would be a good
example for the Hyogo Museum.
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a) Development Process of the Exhibition and Roles of Scientist
Without teams to develop exhibits within the museum, schematic design is
emphasized, but not concept design, when exhibitions are developed in Japanese
museums. Schematic design physically appears as products of design, but concept design
is important to send messages to visitors . Without careful development of concept design,
however, the exhibition might not provide an effective learning environment but just a
fancy style of exhibition. It is important to understand effective design of exhibitions as
steps of a process that supports the final product. It is necessary for Hyogo Museum to
understand an exhibition as a final product that was shaped in the process of generating
topics, informal reviews, and concept design.
There are differences between the museum structures of the California Academy
of Science and the Hyogo Museum. As the Museum does not have exhibit developers, the
process above is very challenging to apply. In the Hyogo Museum, exhibit developers,
including designers, are contractors who do not belong to the community. Managers or
directors of projects are Museum researchers, who might not have much experience in
developing exhibitions. There is a difficulty in communicating between researchers and
the contractors because there are few things to share between them without a carefully
developed concept design. The Museum staff need to lead the project to present their
message as an institution. As a first step, it is important that Hyogo Museum understands
the elements of the development process so that Museum staff, including research
scientists, can be involved in the process.
b) Effective Learning Environment
There are many elements that relate to and build on learners' previous experiences
or personal lives. Visitors have seen "ants" in their daily lives, although they have not
understood ants at the level provided by this exhibition. The information about ants'
social structures were described with words that visitors use in their daily lives and can
imagine applying in their daily experience. Environmental issues , such as invasive
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species and biodiversity, were also presented in ways visitors can relate to their personal
lives.
The exhibition provides opportunities for exploring. Colony displays allow
visitors to observe the ant colonies from different angles, such as from the floor, sitting
on the cushions on the floor or using magnifying glasses, which attach to display cases.
Other devices, such as microscopes and video programs, also provide visitors ways to
explore by themselves. The atmosphere of the exhibition invites visitors to explore by
themselves.
The most significant stimulations to motivate visitors are the facts about ants.
These facts seek to tap the intrinsic interests of visitors. The exhibition seeks to increase
intrinsic motivations by providing interactive devices. Providing opportunities for ant
surveys can motivate visitors to participate in research after they leave. The information
about dealing with unwelcome ants, while avoiding use of pesticides, can also motivate
visitors to make individual decisions in their daily lives.
The atmosphere of this exhibition allows visitors to do what they want to do. It is
clear what visitors are to do in the exhibition. Visitors can use the interactive devices by
themselves without seeking information on how to use them. The organization of
information on the labels also helps visitors make decisions quickly on what they want to
do. The words oflabel headings are familiar to visitors, so, without losing sight of what
the exhibit is about, visitors continue reading carefully if they are interested or they move
on if they are not. Visitors can control what they do by themselves in the exhibition.
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IV. Model Exhibitions at the Field Museum and the Museum of Science, Boston
The ''Nature Walk" exhibition at the Field Museum and the "Natural Mystery"
exhibition at the Museum of Science, Boston display similar objects in different ways, as
the Hyogo Museums does. They might be good examples that the Hyogo Museum could
learn from through observing how these objects are displayed in the exhibition, and be
provided effective learning environment.
The Hyogo Museum has exhibitions that display stuffed animals and dioramas
separately. The stuffed mammal species are displayed on the stage without connections to
their habitats. There are more than 10 glass-case dioramas, which show some species and
their habitat types. However, the glass cases are small and show limited species in their
ecological systems. The space and objects in the glass cases do not give the sense that the
visitors can be part of the environment. The objects in the glass case are separated from
the visitors like separate pages in a textbook. There is a large diorama, which shows a
forest scene with stuffed mammals and other insect collections. This diorama changes its
colors imitating morning or sunset, and it is filled with the sound of birds. However, there
are not any devices or signs that invite visitors to observe carefully.
Some devices, which invite visitors to observe carefully in the ''Nature Walk"
exhibition at the Field Museum, can be good models for the Hyogo Museum. ''Nature
Walk" is "a nature trail through prairies, wetlands, woodlands, and ocean shores to
discover the wonders of the wild." Stuffed animals are displayed in glass cases in an
ecological setting, such as wetlands and woodlands. From the trail, visitors can observe
more than 10 glass cases, each with a different habitat type. The sizes of the glass case
are varied, but all cases are big enough so that people feel themselve in the habitats. The
"Local Woodlands Four Seasons Diorama" is especially remarkable. This exhibit was
developed in 1902, focusing on habitat accuracy and lifelike poses.
There is a clear title label, an introductory label, and group labels. The captions
are placed in various ways and provide different levels of information in easy-to-read
styles. At each exhibit or glass case, there is a large panel that locates the scene with
maps, provides brief information about the scene, and tells interesting facts about specific
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species in the scene. There are also flip panels, "Animals in this scene," which tell how
many mammals, birds, insects, and amphibians are in the scene. The flip panels also
include information about the plants species. The content is about the ecological systems
as habitats of species.
As well as flip panels, there are hands-on devices at children's eye-level for them
to touch. There are also yellow triangle signs, which ask the visitors if they can find
certain objects in the glass case. For example, "What can you find in the tree holes?" and
"Can you find... 1 squirrel, I snake, I deer antler?"
Throughout the exhibition, the language is familiar. Displaying the stuffed
animals within their habitats can help visitors learn not just but also can deepen their
understanding of the habitats. Visitors also can sense that the stuffed animals are not just
"dead animals" or objects for study.
Various panels allow visitors to explore objects, and hands-on devices allow
visitors to find out some facts themselves. The question style of the panels stimulates a
visitor's motivation and curiosity. Even though there is no reward for finding objects in
the cases, visitors might be excited to do so. Especially for visitors who came as a part of
social group, telling other members of the group what they find is one of the ways to
interact with other members.
With different kinds of panels, each providing different information, visitors can
know what they can do at the exhibition. These observations can be self-paced. Through
providing various styles of labels and panels, visitors can choose what they want to view
or how much time they want to spend at each exhibit.
82
One of the newer exhibitions at the Hyogo Museum is the collection, "Naturalist' s
Fantasy." These exhibits are collections that were donated by naturalists and that
supported research at the museum. The exhibits include information on the collectors'
personalities and the meanings ofthe collections to their research and to their lives.
However, it seems the information is provided to introduce the collections and their
personalities, but not the ways that visitors can relate to their own lives. Altho ugh the
collections themselves can be attractive to see at first glance, only visitors who are
already interested in the topic would observe them carefully. Without devices to invite
visitors to observe carefully, those who are not interested are unlikely to find the
collection interesting.
Science exhibitions at the Hyogo Museum are separated from other exhibitions.
They are designed exhibition is designed for visitors who are interested in science or
who want to become scientists. The exhibits are designed to motivate visitors to become
scientists, but scientists rarely consider making their exhibits understandable to the
general public.
The Museum of Science, Boston is also an academic-oriented museum. The
"Natural Mystery" is an exhibition about collections and science that provide an
enjoyable, but also educational, learning environment. It is an interesting approach to
connect the scientists' work with visitors' activities in their daily lives. This exhibition
can be a good model for the Hyogo Museum to follow.
The website describes "Natural Mystery" exhibition as "Natural Mysteries invite
you to put your organizational instincts to work" (MOS 2005). Organizing, collecting,
sorting, and grouping are universal human activities, but they are also scientific skills.
Scientists classify (organize things into groups) to uncover the natural world's hidden
patterns and meanings. The exhibition also highlights the message that ''The natural
world is full of mysteries. How we make sense of it depends on the kinds of order we
create ..... or reveal."
At the exhibition entrance, there are questions, such as "Who collects them?" or,
"Where people see the collection? " such as spoons and forks are that found in kitchens.
83
The activities of the collection are introduced not as speci alties of scientists, but as the
scientists collecting objects as extensions of human activities so that they can become
specialists.
There are specimen cases of mammals and insects, and there is also an earthquake
recorder, which is collecting data. For example, one of the exhibits, "All Sorts of
Minerals," explains how the minerals are organized in their boxes. "Mammal Skull
Mystery" provides hands-on devices, and opportunities to discover the different shapes of
mammal species. Another hands-on activity, "1 Spy" invites visitors to organize the
objects as cards idicate. Exhibits in this exhibition are designed to attract diverse
audiences and provide effective learning for visitors .
84
Conclusion: Recommendation
Museums are one important venue for informal environmental education. With
the specialties of museums-s-collections, research, and exhibits and interpretive
programs-museums have rich resources for environmental learnin g. Museums are also
social institutions in communities, and thus they can foster collective learning among
school classes, family groups, and social networks. At their best, they also might move
visitors (infonnallearners) toward the idea of ascending staircases to reach responsible
environmental behavior.
As one venue for environmental education, the Hyogo Museum has recently
adopted a mission related to environmental education. The Hyogo Museum already wants
to strengthen its exhibits and enlarge its environmental education approach. The
following are my recommendations for the Hyogo Museum to make the exhibits into an
effective learning environment for environmental education.
1. The Hyogo Museum's new exhibits could be models for active, effective
learning about the environment and environmental protection based on
informal learning theory.
It is important that the Hyogo Museum recognizes the museum as an
infonnallearning center and takes advantages of the opportunities to provide
an effective learning center. Understanding and including the educational
perspectives inherent in the museum exhibits might be essential as I
summarized effective learning environments in museums in Chapter 2.
2. Research staff at the Hyogo Museum need to understand visitors and become
more "Learner Centered."
With a lack of educators, researchers need to learn to "come down" to
meet visitors' understandings instead of requiring visitors to "move up" to
take museum learning more seriously. In other words, researchers need to
85
understand the visitor-centered museu m by them selves without the
educational, and designing staff members who integrate their academic studies
into a visitor-centered exhibit style.
Evaluating the exhibit is essential to improve the museum exhibit itself as
well as to shape the museum's role in the community. Evaluations, however,
are still very challenging in the current situation, namely that Japanese
museums currently have no form of self-evaluation or evaluation by the
public. Without specialists, the staff members who are mostly researchers in
Hyogo Museum do not have adequate human resources to conduct
evaluations. However, even though the time spent evaluating exhibits is
limited, as researchers' work, it is important for the museum staff to observe
both exhibits and visitors' behaviors in the museums. The Brooklyn
Children's Museum published Doing It Right: A Workbook/or Improving
Exhibit Labels. This workbook provides steps to evaluate museums'
effectiveness at communication through exhibit labels. The workbook was
prepared based on the Children's Museum's own work in exhibit assessment,
and the workbook provides the steps that any museum staff can undertake by
themselves. Using such a handbook might help the staff to see the value of
continuous exhibit evaluation and motivate them to do more of it.
3. Exhibits seem most effective when designed collaboratively by a team that
includes researchers, museum education staff, and exhibit designers to
deliver messages.
Museum exhibits should be designed to have clear messages and to deliver
the message to visitors. In the process of developing the messages as well as
designing an exhibition based on the message, the exhibit development team
within the museum is essential. Without the core team to develop museum
exhibits, researchers and other staff, including the administration department
and floor and guide staff, need to work together. Although the Hyogo Museum
currently depends on a private exhibit-design company, the museum staff
86
members should become involved with each step of the process of exhibit
design.
4. To accomplish the above recommendations, the staff structure, including the
management structure, might have to change.
The involvement of staff members in the administration department and
floor and guide staff members is difficult, because they typicaIly would work
for the museum for only 1-3 years. It might be necessary to find ways to
encourage these staff members to be involved with the development process,
even if staff status cannot be changed due to the management necessities.
Fundamental changes of management structures in the museum are important,
if the researchers do everything by themselves, it will be too much work for
them.
There are difficulties and limitations in the Hyogo Museum to improve the
exhibits as effective learning environments for the goals of environmental education.
However, the museum profession is rethinking how it structures both exhibits and
educational experiences for visitors. As increasing environmental challenges confront
society, museums and other environmental learning centers are becoming more focused
on their potential role for environmental education. The Hyogo Museum has both many
opportunities to become involved in these trends and many chaIlenges. I hope this paper
offers some useful suggestions for the exhibit expansion that is being planned.
87
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